Abstract Dostoevsky’s novels contain rich and profound philosophical ideas that can be broadly categorized into three forms: moral philosophy, existential philosophy, and tragic philosophy. The core of moral philosophy is the doctrine of love, emphasizing selfless dedication and self-sacrifice. Existential philosophy opposes psychology to reason, declaring the legitimate rights of individual psychological freedom. Tragic philosophy further explores the deep ethical and moral question of whether individuals have the right to oppose the world in critical situations.
在弗洛连斯基的美学思想中,真善美——这三个形而上学原则,不是三个不同原则或存在的三个方面,而是同一个原则.因为这只不过是从三个不同角度来看的同一种精神生活.艺术活动不是心理性的,而是实体性的;艺术的宗旨是"启示原型"、表现新的、先前未知的实在.艺术家不是构造形象,而是借助于颜料来"清洗""精神实在的记录".因此,艺术的方法应该是象征主义的,而不是自然写实主义的.自然主义的透视法则是建立在欧几里得空间、静止不动和机械观察基础上的.但世界的空间不限于欧几里得空间,对世界的直观不等于世界的真实图景,透视论者缺乏精神的积极性.因此,透视法则不适合于对有深度的、间断性的、多关联的、非均质的、等级性的现实进行象征性的描绘.不服从于透视法则的东正教圣像画法(反透视)具有自己的精神意义.
俄罗斯民族主义思想具有深厚的精神基础,即东正教思想根源、文化学思想根源和哲学思想根源.哲学思想根源的表现之一是俄国哲学家在20世纪初的思想争论中为民族性和民族情感进行了哲学辩护和理论证明,即"民族性是本体实在""民族情感是政治的爱欲""历史生活独立于道德判断""祖国是审美范畴".另一方面,极端民族主义和狭隘的民族情感也受到一些俄国哲学家的批评,他们认为俄罗斯民族主义在承认俄罗斯民族性的宗教基础的同时,夸大了 自己的民族性,成为狭隘的民族分立主义和民族利己主义;对祖国的爱不应当表现为对自己民族缺陷的称赞,而应当表现为揭露这些缺陷,积极地唤醒民族良知,反对一切有损于民族精神面貌的东西.
In 1928–1930 there were only four meetings between Lev Shestov and Edmund Husserl. Already the first meeting revealed a discrepancy in the interpretation of truth: for Husserl, the existence of an ideal object is independent of living reality, the real world occupies a subordinate position in relation to the ideal. According to Shestov, timeless ideal entities are doomed to decay, although, choosing between the real and the reasonable, a person chooses the reasonable, but in the situation of the ultimate idea, they reveal their impotence. Further communication between the two philosophers made it possible to touch upon the question of “coercion by the truth”, the power of reason, and the tasks of philosophy. Shestov’s controversy with Husserl expressed the opposition between rationalistic epistemology and existential philosophy. However, the differences between the thinkers on scientific and philosophical issues did not interfere with their personal friendship. Husserl sees the irrational reality of life, but he believes that philosophy can and aims to overcome this chaos of the irrational; for Shestov, the task is not to reject the rational, but to criticize the notion of its omnipotence. The exchange of ideas between Shestov and Husserl was an important event in the history of philosophy in the 20th century.
《卡拉马佐夫兄弟》中的四段有关奇迹的情节表现了陀思妥耶夫斯基对宗教奇迹的基本观点:东正教信仰主要体现为人的道德与精神力量,而不是对奇迹和彼岸世界的幻想;不是奇迹导致了人对上帝的信仰,而是对上帝的信仰给人带来的内在改变造成了人的精神"奇迹".这体现了陀思妥耶夫斯基人学与东正教人学在本体论基础和性善论方面的联系,也体现了两种人学在人道性和心理性与超验性和彼岸性、神圣教义与问题探索方面的区别.
弗兰克一方面肯定康德关于道德义务思想的重大贡献,另一方面也指出康德把道德命令变成一种纯粹理论意识或抽象法则是片面的.他从神人性、人的心灵结构、"原初的实在"三方面,对道德义务思想进行了本体论解释.神人性意味着一个人只有在道德要求中听到来自存在深处的、有本体论根据的声音时,善的实现对他来说才能获得合理意义.在心灵的情感、意志、精神三层结构中,道德所在的第三层级是一种塑造心灵的超越力量.道德命令作为绝对价值是某种原初的动态实在,它通过吸引人的精神而为自己在经验现实中的实现开辟道路.
俄罗斯伦理学界近年来在对道德的理解上有两种不同观点,一种认为道德的根本在于道德主体的个人行为,因此认为应当从“行为哲学”出发重新确立伦理学的哲学基础.另一种观点则认为道德主要是人与他人的关系,因此认为对道德问题的研究不仅应当注重个人责任,还应当看到他者、他人、行为的社会条件等因素.因为现代社会中的道德不是通过动机表现出来的,而是从事件、活动、政治方面表现出来的.
俄罗斯学者认为,现代伦理学具有关注公共领域伦理、职业伦理、人类未来危机等特点,在研究方法论上更加注重经验现实角度,强调道德主体不是作为自主的、孤立于他人的个体的人,而是处于相互联系、相互依赖中的人们,把道德看作是在多个层次上确立人际和谐关系的途径,因此他们肯定应用伦理学对现代伦理学发展的意义.但是,也有相反的看法认为道德是人关于自己的决定和行为的观点,强调现代伦理学应当重新探究伦理学的哲学理论基础.在具有前沿性的人工智能伦理问题研究方面,俄罗斯学者提出,应当把与意志自由相关的错误可能性、自我评价能力、自我学习和发展能力纳入人工智能的建立和运行之中.
舍斯托夫认为黑格尔哲学把“上帝”“启示”“信仰”“忏悔”等概念哲学化和理性化,背离了基督教精神.他虽然用“精神”“绝对精神”“真理”把哲学和宗教联系在一起,但其实质是对基督教信仰的歪曲和消解,是用概念思辨的哲学来取代以人的得救和与神合一为终极目的的基督教.舍斯托夫还批评了黑格尔关于“时代精神”的历史决定论和“现实是合理的”观点.
舍斯托夫在亚里士多德关于“必然性不听劝说”的陈述背后,不是看到了亚里士多斯对世界规律的总结,而是看出了他的无奈和叹息.在舍斯托夫看来,亚里士多德最终还是克制了自己不由自主的叹息,开始赞扬强迫性的真理.然而舍斯托夫认为,全部哲学的根本问题就在于对必然性是服从还是斗争的问题.理性主义哲学教导人对必然性的服从,存在哲学主张人有与必然性作斗争的权利.存在哲学是争取不可能之物的斗争.
Freedom of the will in Theology of Eastern Fathers of the Church is greater than the freedom of the will of the Catholic theology, in two ways: First, at the beginning of faith,Eastern Fathers of the Church emphasize the Synergy and necessity of human will's choice, and Western theology highlighted the decisiveness of God's grace under the doctrine of Original Sin. Secondly, Eastern Fathers of the Church believe that the essence of Spiritual practice is human beings receiving God's grace, and for Western theologians the Spiritual practice is Spiritualists experiencing their sins and imitating the example of Christ obeying the Will of God. There are four sematic differences between the concept of freedom of the Orthodox Church and the common concept of freedom: in subject, in context, in implication and in intent.
今年年初,乌克兰东正教会获得了确认其自主地位的官方文件普世牧首教令,却引起教内外广泛争议.本文通过对这一教令文本的全文解读,分析了其中所包含的若干教规问题,包括世界东正教自主教会的名录排序、君士坦丁堡教会的特殊地位、自主教会的权限以及流散信徒群体的管辖权归属等问题.
Tolstoy, grounded on Jesus Christ's commandments, put forward the theory of universal love and the theory of"nonviolence against evil". He did not believe that violence and compulsion could fundamentally resolve conflicts and completely remove the evil and create the good. Nonviolence meant to transfer the conflict from the outside to the inner spiritual field of human beings, and to convert the positive efforts of people's a?bandoning evil and chasing goodness from others to their own innermost, trying to " make people alone good". Another Russian philosopher, Ubari Ulbun held that this theory had subjective defects and remained"moral e?gocentrism". It reflected the different understandings of two thinkers on human nature, life, morality and love.
On every Great Saturday, the day preceding Orthodox Easter, a divine liturgy of Holy Fire is celebrated at the Church of the Holy Sepulchure in Jerusalem. The Fire descending from the Heavens in prayer of the Patriarchs of Jerusalem and of Armenian, "miraculously" illuminates the candles in their hands. However, a debate emerged among the Russian Orthodox believers in recent years: Is that a liturgy or a miracle, a myth or a fact? Those issues aroused are very illuminating for the understanding of the faith of Orthodoxy Church.
《路标》文集作者之一基斯嘉科夫斯基,从法律与个人自由、法制与政治妥协、法律与政治利益、对法律的敬畏四个方面,剖析和批评了俄国知识分子的法律意识.俄国法律意识的缺陷主要由三个原因造成:一是俄国知识分子重个人道德律法、轻社会律法的传统观念;二是俄国大众的传统法律文化的特性;三是俄国知识分子的民族意识和理想主义.在基斯嘉科夫斯基的批评与分析背后,他所参照和依据的标准是西方近现代法律思想的基本原则,即社会法制以保护个人自由为前提,宪政国家以政治妥协为基础,法律高于暂时政治利益,法律是内在精神因素等,同时也依据近现代俄国法制发展的进程与趋势.
“俄罗斯世界观”作为俄国传统文化之精神基础,具有有机性、宗教性、理想性和集体主义等特点,这些特点妨碍俄国现代化.以“俄罗斯世界观”为基础的俄罗斯哲学对俄国现代化的反思和批判,是不把“现代化”看作社会理想和最高价值,而只看作是具有更高的人文立场和精神关切.
《罪与罚》的思想体现在两个层面,即法律层面和观念层面.第一个层面法律意义上的罪与罚.小说第四部第四章索尼娅给拉斯柯尔尼科夫读《约翰福音》,这一情节中并没有表现出东正教精神对拉斯柯尔尼科夫的触动和教益.不是索尼娅的宗教说教,而是她的爱情,是促成拉斯柯尔尼科夫自首的重要因素.第二个层面,他的自首和服罪并没有解决观念上的认罪问题.直到最后,拉斯柯尔尼科夫的内心也没有真正认罪和忏悔.道德问题和自由问题本身在陀思妥耶夫斯基那里没有终极答案.陀思妥耶夫斯基不仅是一位基督教思想家,更是一位具有现代理性思想和自由意识的俄国哲学家.
