Rural wastewater management stands at the nexus of public health, environmental stewardship, and climate resilience. Addressing the growing demand for sustainable sanitation in decentralized contexts, this study presents a multi-objective optimization framework that integrates classical process modeling with machine learning to enhance the performance of bio-ecological treatment systems. By coupling the Activated Sludge Model with a fully connected neural network, our integrated approach provides near real-time decision support for meeting stringent discharge standards and agricultural reuse requirements. The framework demonstrates strong predictive capability, achieving coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.860, 0.854, 0.879, and 0.871 for CODCr, NH4+-N, TN, and TP, respectively, on an independent validation dataset. The Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) is incorporated to guide adaptive aeration strategies. Results indicate an energy reduction of 1.19 kWh/day under high-standard discharge mode and a nutrient retention benefit of 22.5 g/day of ammonia nitrogen under irrigation reuse mode, thereby supporting circular nutrient flows. This work offers a scalable and resilient pathway toward low-carbon, resource-recovering sanitation in rural areas by combining data-driven control with ecological design, contributing to sustainable development and climate adaptation goals.

The management of rural sewage faces significant challenges due to the dispersed settlements and inadequate infrastructure characteristics of rural areas. One sustainable management solution is to use constructed wetlands (CWs); however, traditional systems that rely on specific functional plants incur large maintenance costs. This study investigates an innovative approach that integrates native plants (Aster subulatus and Pterodactylus sp.) with functional plants (Arundo donax) in a horizontal subsurface CW (HSCW) to establish a self-sustaining symbiotic system that does not require human intervention. Over 365 days, the HSCW met stringent discharge standards by achieving mean removal efficiencies of 35.05% for chemical oxygen demand (CODCr), 48.92% for ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), 40.57% for total nitrogen (TN), and 27.61% for total phosphorus (TP). Microbial analysis identified Proteobacteria (34%), Actinobacteria (26%), and Bacteroidota (12%) as the dominant phyla, with rhizosphere communities influenced by plant-specific exudates and seasonal variations. Key nitrogen metabolism genes (nirB, nirD, nrfH) and genes coding for phosphorus-related enzymes (ppk, phoD) demonstrated seasonal adaptability driven by temperature fluctuations and plant–microbe interactions. Metagenomic sequencing revealed synergistic pathways, including nitrification-denitrification, dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), and polyphosphate synthesis, which contributed to pollutant removal. Native plant polyculture enhanced microbial diversity and stability and reduced reliance on artificial maintenance. These findings demonstrate that leveraging natural plant symbiosis in CWs enhances ecological and economic sustainability by promoting microbial resilience and self-regulating nutrient cycling. Overall, CWs offer a viable strategy for decentralized sewage treatment in rural locations or any areas characterized by scattered settlements and poor infrastructure.

Activated sludge models (ASMs), the most widely used mathematical models for biological wastewater treatment, offer a simplified matrix-based representation of pollutant biochemical degradation. As understanding of wastewater treatment mechanisms has advanced, the simplifying assumptions of general ASMs have proven unreasonable under certain conditions, prompting their improvement. Existing reviews often focus on the specific application of ASMs, with limited comprehensive analyses of their multi-dimensional extensions and cross-model integrations. This review provides the first systematic overview of the latest developments in ASMs, focusing on model mechanism extension and multi-scale model integration. In terms of mechanism extension, the incorporation of new theories and secondary reaction has enhanced the accuracy of models in simulating membrane bioreactor systems, phosphorus removal, and industrial wastewater treatment. It has also quantified the generation and dissipation pathways of N2O and provided a basis for sludge reduction and sedimentation control. Regarding model integration, this review focuses on the coupling interfaces between ASMs and other models, such as anaerobic reaction models, convection-diffusion theory, hydrodynamic models, and machine learning. These coupled models enable full-scale simulation from micro-level biochemical reactions to macro-level environmental dynamics. Finally, the review emphasizes that future ASMs developments should focus on improving mechanisms and addressing emerging contaminants. It highlights that integrating artificial intelligence can serve as a key tool to balance model accuracy and parameter identifiability. The present review aims to establish a systematic research framework for ASMs, analyze the limitations of existing models, and ultimately provide insights for enhancing the precision and application of ASMs in wastewater treatment.

Viral contamination of aerosols in rural decentralised wastewater systems poses distinct public health challenges that remain insufficiently characterised compared to urban infrastructures. This study employed virome analysis and qPCR to investigate the occurrence, variation, and influencing factors of aerosol viruses across rural sewage collection, treatment, and discharge processes. Results showed that multiple sewage-derived RNA viruses were detected in aerosols, with bacteriophages and plant viruses being the most prevalent (>96%). Human-associated Caliciviridae (0.04%) were detected in aerosols, whereas no human-associated or vertebrate viruses were identified in background air. Typical viruses (HEV, HAstV, and NoV-GI/II) were consistently detected across all rural wastewater collection, treatment, and discharge units. Peak concentrations of NoV-GII in aerosols and wastewater were observed in the septic tank (2761 GC/m3) and anoxic tank (673 GC/L), respectively. Aerosolized viruses showed no consistent variation patterns nor convergence with communities. Temperature and relative humidity were identified as primary environmental influence factors (P < 0.05). Quantitative microbial risk assessment revealed high theoretical disease risks from NoV-GII exposure via ingestion and inhalation, particularly wading in septic tank, where risk levels exceeded the WHO threshold by 314.2%. Comparative analysis with urban data showed studied rural wastewater aerosols contained fewer human-associated but more plant viruses, yet exhibited comparable concentrations of pathogenic viruses. This research, conducted in a typical village in northern China, clarified the warm-season characteristics and transmission risks of viruses in the aerosols of rural wastewater, and emphasized the need for future research on the specific aerosolization mechanism of viruses in rural wastewater treatment.

Rural domestic sewage management is a crucial pathway for achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 targets. Addressing the crucial challenge of prioritizing administrative villages for rural domestic sewage treatment at the county scale requires dedicated planning. However, county-level comprehensive evaluation models designed specifically for this purpose are currently limited. To address this gap, we developed a model based on 13 evaluation indicators encompassing village distribution characteristics, villager demographics, rural economic levels, and sanitation facility conditions. To gauge the varying emphasis on these factors by different groups, a questionnaire survey was conducted among experts, enterprises, and government departments involved in the rural sewage sector in China. Two counties from distinct regions were then chosen to validate these models. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) coupled with the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) method was employed to rank the importance of the factors and determine the prioritization of rural domestic sewage management in each area. The model results indicated that priority should be given to the county government, township government, ecologically sensitive areas, and administrative villages near tourist attractions in the two selected empirical counties for governance. A sensitivity analysis showed that altitude consistently exhibited high sensitivity in influencing the ranking results across all scenarios (0.4–0.6). In addition, the empirical results obtained were largely consistent with the priorities of local governments. The proposed framework offers a practical application for decision-making systems in rural domestic sewage management at the county level, providing theoretical support and scientific strategies. This holds great significance for achieving SDG 6.

Airborne microplastics pose a significant risk to human health. Similarly to the water-air transfer process, such as sea spray, aerosols generated during the wastewater treatment process, driven by aeration and mechanical agitation, are an overlooked potential source of airborne microplastics. This study constitutes the first attempt to investigate the pollution characteristics of microplastics in aerosols generated during wastewater treatment, based on laser direct infrared spectroscopy (LDIR) and pyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS). Microplastics were ubiquitously observed in aerosols from each unit of the wastewater treatment plant, with abundances in the range of 0.83-28.03 items·m-3. A total of 30 different polymer types were identified by LDIR, while polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene terephthalate were the most common polymers. Film and fragment were the main shapes, with a predominant size range of 20-50 μm. The aerosolization degree of microplastics is affected by the aeration intensities and hydrodynamic conditions maintained in each unit, but also varied depending on their inherent characteristics. These findings suggest that the aerosolization of microplastics from wastewater treatment is a potential source of airborne microplastics. This study contributes a novel insight into the occurrence of microplastics in aerosols generated during wastewater treatment.

Technologies previously used to treat electrolytic magnetic residue (EMR), including alkaline oxide-containing reagents, the ammonium phosphate method, and active substances, have proven impractical due to issues such as alkaline corrosion, high reagent costs, and limited waste valorisation. This study proposed a hazard-free disposal of EMR mixed with magnesium slag (MS) using a moisture-assisted method, leveraging the dual function of dicalcium silicate (C2S) in MS as both an alkaline compound and a reactive component. The time-dependent solidification/stabilisation (S/S) behaviours of soluble manganese (Mn2 +) and ammonia nitrogen (NH3-N) were examined. C₂S hydrolysis was also examined under low and high alkalinity. This included the initial dissolution of C2S in MS with sulphates (containing Mn2+ and NH₄⁺) in EMR, extensive mid-stage C2S hydration, and subsequent precipitation of Mn2+. The S/S efficiency and mechanism achieved using MS were comparable with findings from related studies, indicating its potential benefits. Results showed that S/S was completed under the following conditions: 8 h at a liquid-solid ratio of 30 %, EMR particle sizes less than 0.15 mm, and an S/S temperature of 75 ℃. After treatment, leaching concentrations of Mn2+ and NH3-N were 7.80 µg/L and 5.30 mg/L, respectively, with minimal risk of alkaline corrosion (pH =9.69). Additionally, Mn(III, IV)-bearing oxides (71.24 %) and [Mn(II), Mg]-bearing silicates (28.36 %) were detected in the S/S-treated EMR. Overall, this study presents a practical method for large-scale waste treatment and supports circular economy goals.

Dewatered-sludge-based flocculants (DSBF) from wastewater treatment plants has emerged as a promising solution for simultaneous in situ phosphorus removal and waste reuse. Studying kinetics of phosphorus removal processes can help predict reaction rates, however, current kinetic studies primarily emphasize model fitting, neglecting the influence of initial total phosphorus concentration (TPw). To address this issue, a parsimonious kinetic model framework was developed based on the pseudo-second-order (PSO) model, including an adsorption phosphorus removal reaction rate function and a kinetic coefficient (k(2))-TPw function. Laboratory flocculation parameter optimization experiments showed that the effluent phosphorus concentration was reduced to below 0.5 mg/L with optimal conditions of flocculant pH of 4, dosing ratio of 6 %, Al/P of 4.5-5.0, Fe/P of 0.42-0.8, and Al/Fe of 9.0-12.0. The effect of TPw on the reaction kinetics was investigated using the PSO-based kinetic model within a wide TPw range of 1.5 to 40.0 mg/L. The simulation results demonstrated that the kinetic model effectively characterized the slow phosphorus adsorption onto DSBF, with an ultimate prediction error of less than 8 %. Significantly, a robust negative correlation between k2 and TPw was identified and quantified (k(2) = 0.04437 x TPw-(0.4059), R-2>0.95). The applicability of the reaction rate model and the k2-TPw function was validated using municipal wastewater with errors of less than 10 % and 4.5 %, respectively. These findings provide broad insights into phosphorus adsorption kinetics and practical, mathematically efficient framework for real-time, precise wastewater treatment process regulation.

Biological treatment is highly regarded as an effective, cost-efficient, and sustainable method for sewage management, particularly given the challenges posed by cold climates and "double carbon" initiatives that prioritize energy savings and low carbon emissions. In this study, the adaptability of multi-family rural sewage treatment systems (MRST) in these harsh conditions was assessed through continuous monitoring over a 365-day period. The removal efficiencies for CODCr, NH4+-N, TN, and TP during the normal temperature period were recorded at 82.78 +/- 5.38 %, 85.89 +/- 2.38 %, 77.17 +/- 4.36 %, and 78.67 +/- 4.52 %, respectively, with only minor fluctuations between - 4.92 % and + 4.15 % observed during the low temperature (8.32 +/- 4.74 degrees C) and freezing periods (-5.79 +/- 6.25 degrees C). Using 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing, this study identified key microorganisms in various functional units, uncovering a decrease in species diversity during winter with a stable overall microbial community structure even with pronounced seasonal variations. Notably, the microbial communities among each of the functional units exhibited significant seasonal differences, with greater diversity observed in summer than in winter. Environmental factors, such as temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen, and hydraulic retention time showed significant correlations with the presence of crucial functional bacteria including Nitrospira and Denitratisoma. Redundancy analysis (RDA) revealed that these environmental factors accounted for >70 % of the variations in microbial structures caused by seasons, with values of 73.33 % in winter and 70.27 % in summer. This research underscores the robustness and efficiency of biological sewage treatment with low-temperature, providing crucial data and insights for optimizing treatment processes in light of seasonal variations and environmental sustainability goals.

With the rapid pace of global urbanization, health risks faced by rural communities are often overlooked. Deaths Attributable to Unsafe Sanitation in Rural areas (DAUSRs) are influenced by demographic factors, disease mortality rates, and environmental sanitation conditions. However, most studies have been limited in scope and scale and lack a comprehensive evaluation framework for global DAUSRs. Therefore, this study estimated the global DAUSRs from 2000 to 2030, using data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) and the World Health Organization (WHO). We employed methods such as comparable risk assessment, Bayesian age (period) models, and AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models. Changes in the DAUSRs and their influencing factors were evaluated by applying a decomposition method to assess the impact of population dynamics, sanitation conditions, age structure, and disease mortality rates. The results indicated that despite improvements in rural sanitation, 12.2% of rural populations will still lack access to sanitary toilets in 2030, with an estimated 243,000 deaths (CI: 147,000-441,000) due to unsafe rural sanitation environments. This outcome highlights the need for better rural sanitation governance to provide for demographic shifts, such as aging and declining fertility rates, which are key drivers of DAUSRs. Regions such as Africa and Southeast Asia are at a higher risk with higher diarrhea-related mortality rates in rural areas. We suggest comprehensive measures, including enhancing rural medical facilities, improving sanitation infrastructure, and focusing on vulnerable groups, such as the elderly and children. These measures could inform global rural environmental and public health policies.

Rural domestic sewage treatment is critical for environmental protection. This study defines the spatial pattern of villages from the perspective of rural sewage treatment and develops an integrated decision-making system to propose a sewage treatment mode and scheme suitable for local conditions. By considering the village spatial layout and terrain factors, a decision tree model of residential density and terrain type was constructed with accuracies of 76.47 % and 96.00 %, respectively. Combined with binary classification probability unit regression, an appropriate sewage treatment mode for the village was determined with 87.00 % accuracy. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), combined with the Technique for Order Preference (TOPSIS) by Similarity to an Ideal Solution model, formed the basis for optimal treatment process selection under different emission standards. Verification was conducted in 542 villages across three counties of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, focusing on the standard effluent effect (0.3773), low investment cost (0.3196), and high standard effluent effect (0.5115) to determine the best treatment process for the same emission standard under different needs. The annual environmental and carbon emission benefits of sewage treatment in these villages were estimated. This model matches village density, geographic feature, and social development level, and provides scientific support and a theoretical basis for rural sewage treatment decision-making.

Small diameter gravity sewers (SDGSs) have a wide range of applications in rural wastewater collection due to their low construction costs, fast implementation, and simple operation and maintenance. However, the mechanism of sediment accumulation urgently needs to be solved. This study investigated the sedimentation mechanisms in different components of SDGS through pilot-scale experiments and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations. The results indicate that the sedimentation rate of SDGSs decreased as the flow velocity increased, with sediment primarily accumulating at the end section of upstream pipes and within manholes, accounting for 90.37 +/- 5.15% of the total accumulation. Areas with relatively high sedimentation rates exhibited lower turbulent kinetic energy (TKE), and this trend became more pronounced as the flow velocity decreased. TKE and flow velocity were identified as the key factors influencing the sedimentation process in the SDGSs. This study provides important theoretical foundations and technical support for the design and maintenance of SDGSs.

Dissimilar sources, treatment processes, resource-oriented models, lack of disinfection, and proximity to living areas may contribute to distinct virus occurrence, removal efficiencies, and risks in rural compared to urban sewage. This study reviews research on viruses in rural domestic sewage from 2000 to 2024, comparing virus removal efficiencies of common rural treatment processes and identifying potential health risks. It finds that typical virus species in rural sewage resemble those in urban areas but at lower concentrations, with a higher prevalence of animal and plant viruses. The concentrations of typical virus range from 102 to 108 GC/L in influent and 100 to 106 GC/L in effluent. Among existing treatment processes, ecological treatment is more effective in virus removal (0.6 log10 to complete removal), whereas contact oxidation, commonly used in rural settings, has relatively low efficacy (0.2–3.0 log10). Effluent discharge (101–1010 GC/L), excess sludge utilization (102–1010 GC/(g wet wt.)), and fugitive gas (103–107 GC/m3) from treatment processes heighten potential risks of virus exposure. This study conducts a comprehensive analysis of existing research, enhancing understanding of the potential risks and research significance of viruses in rural domestic sewage. It underscores the importance of developing virus research and control strategies under current context and proposes several future research directions in conjunction with existing analyses, including migration pathways, detailed removal mechanism, control technologies, and comprehensive risk assessment of viruses in rural sewage.

Chemicals of emerging concern (CECs) pose critical threats to both public health and the environment, emphasizing the urgent need for effective water treatment measures. Yet, the implementation of such intervention technologies often results in increased energy consumption and adverse environmental consequences. Here, we employ a comprehensive methodology that integrates multiple datasets, assumptions, and calculations to assess the human health and environmental implications of removing various CECs from source water. Our analysis of two treatment alternatives reveals that the integration of riverbank filtration with reverse osmosis offers a promising solution, yielding healthier and more environmentally favorable outcomes than conventional sequential technologies. By incorporating context-specific practices, such as utilizing renewable energy sources and clean energy technologies, we can mitigate the adverse impacts associated with energy-intensive water treatment services. This research advances our understanding of the water-health-environment nexus and proposes strategies to align drinking water provision with public health and environmental sustainability objectives. Chemicals of emerging concern threaten health and the environment, necessitating effective water treatment. This study clarifies the water-health-environment nexus and suggests approaches to align drinking water with health and sustainability goals.

Rural areas in Northwest China are sparsely populated. Traditional centralized domestic sewage treatment facilities have large-scale investments, high operating costs, and complicated operation and maintenance management, challenging their application in these areas. Given the abundant clean energy and limited agricultural irrigation water in Northwest China, this study constructs a solar-wind driven rural domestic sewage treatment system with a treatment scale of 1.5 m3/d and HRT of 14 h. Effluent quality was suitable for farmland irrigation. The efficiency of complementary solar-wind power generation and the system operating performance and potential application value were assessed. The effluent CODCr meets the Class A vegetable irrigation standards (average removal rate is 70 %) in the "Standard for Irrigation Water Quality" (GB5084-2021). The average retention efficiencies of NH4+-N and SRP are 100.23 % and 104.3 %, respectively. Using the emission factor method, indirect and direct carbon emissions and the carbon reduction potential were evaluated. The carbon reduction rate during the life cycle is 53.15 %. Finally, a life-cycle cost evaluation model quantified a 25-year life cycle cost-effectiveness. The application potential was confirmed based on investment costs. This study demonstrates this novel treatment system feasibility in terms of operational performance, carbon emissions, and costeffectiveness and provides a scientific basis for low-carbon and sustainable resource recycling to rural sewage treatment systems.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are major sources of volatile gaseous compounds, especially in mixed-source systems such as domestic wastewater and landfill leachate. This study aimed to investigate the emission behavior and environmental impact of gaseous substances, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), carbon sulfide (CS2), and phosphine (PH3), at a WWTP in Northwest China. Odorants were detected in the air surrounding the grid room (XGS), biochemical treatment tank (SHC), secondary sedimentation tank (ECC), and sludge dewatering room (NTS). For comparison, the upwind boundary (O-SF) and downwind boundaries (O-XF) monitoring points were used, with odor concentrations ranging from 3.95 to 725.27 odor units. The concentration ranges of the odorant substances were 5.27-88.69, 5.61-71.96, 5.70-32.63, and 0.12-5.87 mg/m3 for H2S, NH3, CS2, and PH3, respectively. Meteorological factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed and direction substantially influence odorant emissions. The concentrations of various odorants and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) detected at the O-XF monitoring point were higher than those detected at the O-SF monitoring point, indicating that the wind intensified their diffusion toward the downwind plant boundary. The average odor intensities of odorant substances emitted from wastewater or sludge treatment equipment were 3.37, 5.09, 4.42, 2.00, and 3.82 for total VOCs, H2S, NH3, CS2, and PH3, respectively. Among them four, with downwind diffusion, only H2S presented olfactory and chronic toxicity risks based on Gaussian plume model calculations. The hazard index ranking across monitoring sites was XGS > NTS > SHC > ECC > O-XF > O-SF. These findings emphasize the urgent need for effective measures to control and mitigate gaseous pollutants emitted by collaborative WWTPS, thereby protecting environmental quality and public health.

污水处理填料能够提高污水处理效果，但其堵塞问题会降低处理能力、恶化运行工况，亟待解决。为提高污水处理填料的抗堵塞能力，综述了污水处理填料堵塞的相关研究，从填料特性、应用场景、物质分类、堵塞特点、发展机制和影响因素等方面总结了污水处理填料堵塞的形成机理，从事前、事中、事后三个方面讨论了针对污水处理填料堵塞问题的7项常用控制措施，并根据研究现状提出了堵塞形成机理、堵塞控制措施、填料设计优化等方面的研究建议，以期为污水处理填料及配套工艺的后续研究和技术开发提供支撑，提高污水处理填料的应用效益。

The dredging sludge from river channels is a challenging task due to its low strength and high compressibility, and the use of magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC) for curing treatment has a high sustainability value. In this regard, the synergistic solidification efficiency of magnesium oxychloride cement (MOC), along with the selected additives (e.g., sodium silicate, CFBC desulfurization ash, and silica fume), on tested sludge was systematically evaluated by the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and microstructural tests. Initially, the baseline component ratio of MOC solidified sludge was determined through analyzing the effect of the water content, MOC cement dosage and molar ratio of MgO/MgCl2 on its solidification strength. Subsequently, a suitable dosage range for each additive was obtained by observing the UCS’s growth behavior for MOC solidified sludge containing a single additive. Then, the regression model for predicting the UCS was formulated using the Response Surface Methodology (RSM), and by interrogating it, can optimize additive contents in terms of the UCS requirements. To collect the experiential data, twenty mix designs with different sodium silicate contents (x1: [4%, 8%]), silica fume contents (x2: [2%, 6%]) and CFBC desulfurization ash contents (x3: [2%, 6%]) were generated by Central Composite Design (CCD). Finally, the phase composition and microstructure differences of composite MOC solidified sludge, MOC solidified sludge and undisturbed sludge were compared to reveal the solidification mechanism of composite MOC cement on tested sludges. The results shows that a specific component mixing ratio (MOC cement: sodium silicate: silica fume: CFBC desulfurization ash) of composite MOC cement for satisfying maximum solidification strength is 10: 5.35: 5.34: 3.45. The strength performance of composite MOC solidified sludge is superior to that of MOC solidified sludge, as evidenced by the presence of numerous flocculent hydrated products such as phase 5(5[Mg(OH)2]·MgCl2·8(H2O)), M-S-H and C-S-H gels in composite MOC solidified sludge, while only short rod-like phase 5 being detected in MOC solidified sludge. Herein, a conceptual model on the sludge solidification using composite MOC cement was also innovatively developed.

Waterborne viral epidemics are a major threat to public health.Increasing interest in wastewater reclamation highlights the importance of understanding the health risks associated with potential mi-crobial hazards,particularly for reused water in direct contact with humans.This study focused on identifying viral epidemic patterns in municipal wastewater reused for recreational applications based on long-term,spatially explicit global literature data during 2000-2021,and modelled human health risks from multiple exposure pathways using a well-established quantitative microbial risk assessment methodology.Global median viral loads in municipal wastewater ranged from 7.92 × 104 to 1.4 × 106 GC L-1 in the following ascending order:human adenovirus(HAdV),norovirus(NoV)GII,enterovirus(EV),NoV GI,rotavirus(RV),and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2(SARS-CoV-2).Following secondary or tertiary wastewater treatment,NoV GI,NoV GII,EV,and RV showed a relatively higher and more stable log reduction value with medians all above 0.8(84％),whereas SARS-CoV-2 and HAdV showed a relatively lower reduction,with medians ranging from 0.33(53％)to 0.55(72％).A subsequent disinfection process effectively enhanced viral removal to over 0.89-log(87％).The predicted event probability of virus-related gastrointestinal illness and acute febrile respiratory illnesses in reclaimed recreational water exceeded the World Health Organization recommended recreational risk benchmark(5％and 1.9％,respectively).Overall,our results provided insights on health risks associated with reusing wastewater for recreational purposes and highlighted the need for establishing a regulatory framework ensuring the safety management of reclaimed waters.