Salt stress is a major abiotic factor limiting grapevine growth and yield. To elucidate the physiological and molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying salt tolerance in grapevine, this study used ‘Carménère’ (Vitis vinifera) and ‘Pinot Noir’ (Vitis vinifera) as experimental materials. Under 200 mmol/L NaCl stress, the physiological response characteristics of the two cultivars were systematically compared, and transcriptome sequencing combined with qRT-PCR analysis was conducted to explore the molecular basis of their differences in salt tolerance. The results showed that salt stress significantly impaired photosynthetic performance and disrupted cellular homeostasis in grapevine; however, the reductions in relative chlorophyll content (SPAD value), maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm), and photosynthetic performance were significantly smaller in ‘Carménère’ than in ‘Pinot Noir’, indicating greater stability of the photosynthetic apparatus in ‘Carménère’. Meanwhile, ‘Carménère’ maintained higher activities of antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of non-enzymatic antioxidants, effectively reducing reactive oxygen species accumulation and membrane lipid peroxidation. In addition, under salt stress, ‘Carménère’ accumulated greater amounts of osmotic adjustment substances and maintained lower Na+ content and higher K+ content, demonstrating a more efficient capacity for osmotic regulation and ion homeostasis. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling, and glutathione metabolism pathways were significantly enriched in ‘Carménère’, with multiple key genes being coordinately upregulated under salt stress. Taken together, these findings indicate that ‘Carménère’ achieves enhanced salt tolerance through a multilayered signaling regulatory network that coordinates physiological defense responses. This study provides a theoretical basis for elucidating the mechanisms of salt tolerance in grapevine and for the molecular breeding of salt-tolerant cultivars.

Grape is a major economic crop in northwestern China, playing a vital role in the region's agricultural economy. However, in recent years, soil salinization has intensified due to global warming and improper irrigation practices, resulting in significant declines in grape yield and quality. Addressing the adverse effects of salt stress on grape growth is of critical importance. Therefore, this study explored the effects of the exogenous application of microbial fertilizer Bacillus velezensis GB03 on the photosynthesis of Pinot Noir grapes under salt stress. Using Pinot Noir plants under normal growth conditions as the control group, salt stress was simulated by applying 200 mM NaCl. The microbial fertilizer GB03 was first diluted with water and then applied exogenously at three concentrations: low (300-fold dilution), medium (200-fold dilution), and high (100-fold dilution). The study measured the effects of these treatments on photosynthetic gas exchange parameters, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, relative chlorophyll content, and single-plant yield under salt stress. The results demonstrated that salt stress significantly reduced photosynthesis in grape leaves, whereas the application of microbial fertilizer notably enhanced photosynthetic efficiency and fruit yield. Among the treatments, the medium-concentration fertilizer group exhibited the most pronounced improvements in net photosynthetic rate (A), transpiration rate (E), stomatal conductance (gs), and single-plant yield (SPY). Furthermore, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and relative chlorophyll content in this group were significantly higher than those in the other treatment groups. Principal component analysis confirmed that the medium-concentration treatment had the highest photosynthetic capacity, suggesting that it effectively alleviated salt stress by enhancing photosynthetic performance, thereby increasing fruit yield. This study provides a scientific foundation for the use of microbial fertilizers to mitigate soil salinization and improve salt tolerance in grape cultivation. The findings have significant implications for enhancing grape yield and quality under saline conditions.

Glucoraphanin (GRA), the primary aliphatic glucosinolate in broccoli, serves as the precursor to sulforaphane (SF), a compound widely recognized for its potent anticancer properties. Endophytic fungi, increasingly acknowledged as a valuable source of bioactive secondary metabolites, can modulate the biosynthesis and accumulation of plant-derived compounds. However, studies investigating the dynamic changes in host metabolite profiles during such fungal interactions remain scarce. Here, endophytic fungi isolated from broccoli were initially assessed for their GRA and SF content. These fungi were subsequently co-cultured with broccoli hairy roots to evaluate their effects on GRA and SF biosynthesis and accumulation. The dominant strain, EL-07 (Penicillium citrinum), significantly enhanced GRA and SF biosynthesis during the early co-culture phase (215.99% and 361.05%, respectively). Following successful colonization of hairy roots by P. citrinum, a CERK1-LYK5-mediated transition in the plant's immune/symbiotic status was associated with a marked decline in GRA and SF content. Furthermore, P. citrinum elicited oxidative stress and defense responses and upregulated the expression of genes involved in pathogen defense mechanisms, GRA and SF biosynthesis, and related transporters. Overall, co-culturing hairy roots with P. citrinum engages an “immunity-symbiosis” trade-off mechanism that effectively enhances both the intracellular accumulation and extracellular secretion of GRA and SF.

Glutaredoxins (GRXs) are small oxidoreductases that play a crucial role in response to abiotic stress. Although the GRX gene family has been characterized in several species, the knowledge of their evolution relationship, diversification and function in grape are still limited. In this study, 32 VvGRX genes were identified and clustered into CC-, CGFS-, GRL- and CPYC-type categories. The structure and motifs of VvGRXs were similar in genes clustered into close branches, indicating highly conserved during the evolutional process. Cis-acting elements mainly were involved in stress response and hormone regulation. Tissue-specific expression showed that VvGRXs were differentially expressed in different grape tissues. qRT-PCR indicated that VvGRX28 expression could actively be induced by cold stress. Furthermore, VvGRX28 was functionally characterized and cloned to verify the cold tolerance function. Through Agrobacterium-mediating to overexpress and interfere VvGRX28, the result demonstrated that the VvGRX28 overexpression could enhance the content of proline (Pro), soluble sugar (SS), glutathione (GSH) and peroxidase (POD) activities, and reduced the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and upregulated the expression of ICE, CBF and COR in Arabidopsis thaliana and grape callus, while exhibiting an opposite trend after RNAi. VvZNF10, as the interaction protein of VvGRX28, overexpression and co-transformation with VvGRX28 could improve the cold tolerance in grape callus. The results demonstrate that VvGRX28 is a positive regulator to enhance cold tolerance interacting with VvZNF10 in grape. Collectively, this study provides a comprehensive analysis of the VvGRX gene family, offering novel insights into the regulation mechanism of VvGRX28 under cold stress in grape.

Microbial inoculants, as a new type of product that combines economic efficiency with ecological sustainability, play an important role in promoting plant growth and development, increasing crop yields, and enhancing plant resistance to abiotic stress. This study used the wine grape cultivar (Vitis vinifera ‘Pinot Noir’) as experimental material to systematically investigate the effects of microbial inoculants on the soil–leaf–fruit system during the late growth stage of grapes under salt stress conditions (200 mM NaCl). This study analyzed the regulatory effects of microbial inoculants on soil physicochemical properties, leaf physiological and biochemical characteristics, as well as fruit yield and quality. The results showed that salt stress significantly inhibited the growth of Pinot Noir grapes. However, the application of microbial inoculants effectively alleviated the negative effects of salt stress. By enhancing the plant’s antioxidant defense capacity and regulating physiological metabolic pathways such as osmotic balance, the inoculants significantly mitigated the inhibitory effect of salt stress on fruit development. Notably, the S+JH treatment group demonstrated particularly outstanding results, with hundred-berry weight, single-bunch weight, and yield per plant increasing significantly by 15.96%, 12.47%, and 28.93%, respectively, compared to the salt stress group (S). Additionally, this treatment also stabilized free amino acid content and suppressed excessive organic acid synthesis. This study provides new technical insights into the application of microbial inoculants for saline-alkali land improvement and stress-resistant cultivation of horticultural crops such as grapes, holding significant practical value for promoting the sustainable development of the grape industry in saline-alkali regions.

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is highly sensitive to soil salinization, which severely restricts its cultivation in salt-affected areas. In this study, "Pinot Noir" (V. vinifera "Pinot Noir") was micro-grafted onto the salt-tolerant rootstock "Kangzhen No. 3" to explore the mechanisms by which rootstock-mediated micrografting enhances scion salt tolerance. Grafted seedlings, un-grafted scions, and rootstocks were irrigated with 200 mmol/L NaCl for 6 days. Physiological assessments and transcriptomic analysis revealed that grafted plants exhibited significantly improved salt tolerance compared to ungrafted "Pinot Noir." Differentially expressed genes were mainly enriched in plant hormone signal transduction, MAPK signaling, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathways. Two key genes, VvFLS and VvGSTU14, were selected for functional validation. Overexpression in grapevine calli enhanced antioxidant capacity and significantly improved salt tolerance. These findings demonstrate that micrografting with a salt-tolerant rootstock can enhance scion performance under saline stress by modulating key signaling and metabolic pathways, providing a theoretical foundation for grapevine improvement and sustainable production on saline soils.

This review summarizes the latest research on the response mechanisms and alleviation measures of grapevines under salt stress. As an important economic crop, grapes are widely cultivated worldwide, but salt stress poses a significant threat to their growth, development, and fruit quality. The article discusses the impact of salt stress on key physiological processes in grapes, including photosynthesis, ion homeostasis, and antioxidant enzyme defenses. It also explores the genetic regulatory mechanisms related to salt tolerance, with a focus on the roles of genes such as VviExo70B and VaSAP15 in enhancing salt tolerance. Additionally, strategies for alleviating salt stress, such as grafting, gene editing technologies, and the application of exogenous substances, are reviewed. This paper aims to provide theoretical support for grapevine salt stress research and practical guidance for grapevine cultivation management, while also looking ahead to future research directions, particularly the potential of multi-omics technologies and CRISPR in improving salt tolerance.

Glucoraphanin (GRA) and sulforaphane (SF) are potent anticancer compounds. Understanding their accumulation mechanisms is crucial for increasing their levels in broccoli. This study aimed to investigate the role of nitric oxide (NO) in GRA and SF accumulation and identify key genes involved in this process. Low NO concentrations were found to promote GRA and SF accumulation. Transcriptome sequencing and Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) identified BoNIA2b, a nitrate reductase (NR) gene, as a key regulator of NO-mediated GRA and SF accumulation. Silencing BoNIA2b reduced endogenous NO levels and NR activity in hairy roots, while exogenous treatment with sodium nitroprusside (SNP) restored NO levels without affecting NR activity. Overexpression of BoNIA2b increased NO content and NR activity. Silencing BoNIA2b decreased GRA content, but SF levels remained unaffected. SNP treatment enhanced both GRA and SF accumulation, with GRA being more dependent on BoNIA2b. In BoNIA2b-overexpressing roots, both GRA and SF levels were significantly higher than in controls. Moreover, the interaction between BoNIA2b and BoMYB28 protein was confirmed through Y2H and luciferase complementation assays. These findings underscore BoNIA2b's role in NO-mediated regulation of GRA and SF accumulation in broccoli hairy roots, offering insights to enhancing the production of these anticancer compounds.

Beneficial microbial agents, renowned for their cost-effectiveness, high efficiency, and environmental sustainability, play a pivotal role in enhancing plant growth, crop yield, and tolerance to abiotic stresses. This research delves into the impact of the GB03 microbial agent on the fruit quality of ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’ grapes, as well as on soil physicochemical properties and microbial communities under saline stress. The findings revealed that salt-alkali stress significantly elevated soil electrical conductivity, pH, Na+ levels, and total salt content, while it markedly reduced soil K+, organic matter, ammonium nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen levels compared to the control. The application of the GB03 microbial agent, however, successfully mitigated these detrimental effects of salt-alkali stress. Furthermore, it augmented the population and abundance of dominant soil bacteria, including Acidobacteriota, Bdellovibrionota, and Gemmatimonadota etc., under saline conditions. Crucially, the microbial agent also inhibited the salt-alkali stress-induced decline in grape fruit’s single cluster weight, 100-grain weight, fruit color intensity, and volatile aroma compounds, as well as the increase in organic acids. Consequently, the GB03 microbial agent emerges as a potent strategy for ameliorating saline-alkali soils and bolstering the salt-alkali stress resilience of horticultural crops like grapes.

Understanding the mechanisms that give rise to obstacles in the continuous cultivation of C. pilosula is essential for addressing or mitigating these challenges. The findings of this study suggest that repeated cultivation significantly reduced the content of polysaccharide in roots, and significantly increased the dead seedling rate in the field. The vascular bundles of the affected plant were extensively colonized by fungi. Furthermore, the root vascular bundles exhibit significant woodiness and corkiness, accompanied by cellular fractures and structural collapse. It was determined that the pathogenic endophyte is Fusarium oxysporum, and the exacerbated disease manifestation corresponds to an acute wilting type. Additionally, the root-zone soil microorganisms Cladosporium austroafricanum, Fusarium foetens, Fusarium petersiae, and Acaulium retardatum may significantly contribute to the yield-reducing phenomenon associated with continuous cropping. The proliferation of pathogenic bacteria during continuous cultivation initiates a complex interaction mechanism between the host plant and these pathogens. This process is characterized by a rapid increase in calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration, which subsequently leads to an upsurge in reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly manifested as elevated levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Additionally, this response triggers thickening of cell walls and other immune mechanisms aimed at inhibiting the invasion of pathogenic bacteria. At the same time, to prevent ROS from inducing oxidative damage and triggering oxidative stress, there is a notable increase in both antioxidant enzyme activity and antioxidant substances content.

Salt stress is a typical abiotic stress in plants that causes slow growth, stunting, and reduced yield and fruit quality. Fertilization is necessary to ensure proper crop growth. However, the effect of fertilization on salt tolerance in grapevine is unclear. In this study, we investigated the effect of nitrogen fertilizer (0.01 and 0.1 mol L−1 NH4NO3) application on the salt (200 mmol L−1 NaCl) tolerance of grapevine based on physiological indices, and transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. The results revealed that 0.01 mol L−1 NH4NO3 supplementation significantly reduced the accumulation of superoxide anion (O2.-), enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD), and improved the levels of ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH) in grape leaves compared to salt treatment alone. Specifically, joint transcriptome and metabolome analyses showed that the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were significantly enriched in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway (ko00941) and the flavone and flavonol biosynthesis pathway (ko00944). In particular, the relative content of quercetin (C00389) was markedly regulated by salt and nitrogen. Further analysis revealed that exogenous foliar application of quercetin improved the SOD and POD activities, increased the AsA and GSH contents, and reduced the H2O2 and O2.- contents. Meanwhile, 10 hub DEGs, which had high Pearson correlations (R2 > 0.9) with quercetin, were repressed by nitrogen. In conclusion, all the results indicated that moderate nitrogen and quercetin application under salt stress enhanced the antioxidant system defense response, thus providing a new perspective for improving salt tolerance in grapes.

Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf. is an essential traditional medicinal herb in China. Soil sickness caused by continuous cropping is the main reason for the yield reduction of C. pilosula. However, because of the lack of systematic research on the mechanism of continuous cropping obstacles in C. pilosula, there is a lack of effective measures to reduce or even restrain the disorder of continuous cropping obstacles in C. pilosula. The root system, inter-root soil microorganisms and non-inter-root soil of C. pilosula under a continuous cropping system (e.g. crop rotation, two consecutive crops and three consecutive crops) as well as under different mulching methods (the mulched film and the uncovered) were used as experimental materials for the study. The plant growth of C. pilosula was significantly inhibited when continuous cropping reached 2 years. At the same time, the mulched film significantly (p < .05) promoted the development of C. pilosula under continuous cropping and considerably mitigated the plant death rate of C. pilosula in all fields. The content of soil nutrients, such as organic matter and inorganic nitrogen, decreased with increasing years of continuous cropping. In contrast, the mulched film improved this soil nutrient in continuous cropping. There was a tendency for the number of endemic operational taxonomic units (OTUs) to decrease in continuous cropping. Additionally, the mulched film altered the distribution of shared and endemic OTUs in the samples and had a recruiting effect on inter-root microorganisms in continuous cropping. Betaproteobacteriales flora abundance decreased with increasing years of continuous cropping, which showed a strong positive correlation with the immune system and environmental adaptation function. The mulched film increased the abundance of beneficial microorganisms, such as AKAU4049, Betaproteobacteriales and Gaiellales, to adapt and improve the continuous crop disorder of C. pilosula. In conclusion, mulching can enhance the soil environment and facilitate the growth and development of C. pilosula during continuous cultivation.

The integrated plant-metabolite-soil regulation model of C. Pilosula growth and lobetyolin synthesis in response to continuous cropping lacks systematic investigation. In this study, we investigated the regulatory mechanisms of growth and lobetyolin synthesis in C. pilosula under continuous cropping stress based on high-performance liquid chromatography, transcriptome, and microbial sequencing on the root system and rhizosphere soil of C. pilosula from one year of cultivation and five years of continuous cropping. The findings of this study revealed that continuous cropping significantly inhibited the growth of C. pilosula and led to a notable decrease in the lobetyolin content. An effort was made to propose a potential pathway for lobetyolin biosynthesis in C. pilosula, which is closely linked to the expression of genes responsible for glucoside and unsaturated fatty acid chain synthesis. In addition, soil physicochemical properties and soil microorganisms had strong correlations with root growth and synthesis of lobetyolin, suggesting that soil physicochemical properties and microorganisms are the main factors triggering the succession disorder in C. pilosula. This study provides an in-depth interpretation of the regulatory mechanism of acetylenic glycoside synthesis and offers new insights into the triggering mechanism of C. pilosula succession disorder, which will guide future cultivation and industrial development.

The WUSCHEL-related homeobox (WOX) transcription factor family plays critical roles in plant growth, development, and stress adaptation, but the biological functions in response to various stress of the WOX gene family have not been extensively researched in grapevine (Vitis vinifera). In this study, 12 grapevine WOXs were identified from the grapevine genome. Quantitative PCR and microarray expression profiling found that the expression of WOXs had an obvious tissue-specific pattern. Conjoint analysis between various tissues and treated materials indicated VvWUS1 expression is associated with expression of genes from grapevine rupestris stem pitting-associated virus; and VvWOX3 with grapevine fanleaf virus. The gene expression patterns of the WOXs in grape were different under salt stress, with VvWOX8/9, VvWUS1, and VvWOX3 responding more strongly to salt stress than control by 18.20-, 9.50-, and 9.19-fold. This study further improves understanding of the evolution and function of the WOX gene family, and offers a theoretical framework and reference for breeding grapevine to better tolerate adversity and permit cultivation of seedlings free of viruses.

With the continuation of intensive and monoculture production in modern agriculture, the harm of continuous cropping obstacles is becoming more prominent. Pea has important nutritional and economic value, but it is easy to have continuous cropping obstacles in production. However, there is limited knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms of pea to cope with continuous cropping obstacles. In this study, we found that the number of differential expressed genes (DEGs) and differential metabolites (DAMs) increased in the pea roots with increasing continuous cropping times, and the number of DEGs and DAMs in roots of sensitive pea was more than that of continuous cropping tolerant pea. Comprehensive analysis of the omics data revealed that the flavonoid and isoflavonoid biosynthesis pathways play key roles in the response of pea roots to the continuous cropping obstacles. Most of the DEGs involved in these two pathways were up-regulated. Meanwhile, most of the flavonoid compounds and total flavonoid content increased. With increasing continuous cropping times, the isoflavones category in DAMs increased, and the isoflavones category in the roots of continuous cropping tolerant pea were higher than in sensitive pea. Additionally, the isoflavonoid (biochanin A, calycosin, genistein) in the roots of continuous cropping tolerant pea have the ability to inhibit the growth of fungi in pea soil and possess antioxidant activity. These findings revealed the important role of flavonoids in pea continuous cropping obstacles and laid a foundation for effectively alleviating pea continuous cropping obstacles in the future.

Soil salinisation is an important abiotic stress faced in grape cultivating, leading to weakened plant vigour and reduced fruit quality. Melatonin as a novel hormone has shown positive exogenous application value. Therefore, this study used wine grape (Vitis vinifera) ‘Pinot Noir’ as a test material to investigate the changes of foliar spraying with different concentrations of melatonin on the physiology and fruit quality of wine grapes in a field under simulated salt stress (200 mmol L−1 NaCl). The results showed that foliar spraying of melatonin significantly increased the intercellular CO2 concentration, maximum photochemical quantum yield of PSII, relative chlorophyll and ascorbic acid content of the leaves, as well as the single spike weight, 100-grain weight, transverse and longitudinal diameters, malic acid, α-amino nitrogen and ammonia content of fruits, and decreased the initial fluorescence value of leaves, ascorbate peroxidase activity, glutathione content, fruit transverse to longitudinal ratio and tartaric acid content of plants under salt stress. Results of the comprehensive evaluation of the affiliation function indicated that 100 μmol L−1 melatonin treatment had the best effect on reducing salt stress in grapes. In summary, melatonin application could enhance the salt tolerance of grapes by improving the photosynthetic capacity of grape plants under salt stress and promoting fruit development and quality formation, and these results provide new insights into the involvement of melatonin in the improvement of salt tolerance in crop, as well as some theoretical basis for the development and industrialisation of stress-resistant cultivation techniques for wine grapes.

Low temperature is a significant stressor that adversely affects plant growth and development, limiting the geographical distribution of crops. Global climate variability and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events have exacerbated the severity of low-temperature stress. In response, plants have evolved complex mechanisms to adapt to these conditions. This review aims to synthesize the latest research on the effects of low-temperature stress on plant growth, mechanisms of temperature perception and signal transduction, and physiological and molecular responses of plants to low-temperature stress. By elucidating the mechanisms underlying plant tolerance to low temperatures, we seek to enhance our understanding of how plants perceive and respond to cold environments. Furthermore, we propose effective strategies to improve plant cold tolerance while ensuring growth, yield, and quality. This paper also introduces recent advancements in the field and provides innovative insights and research perspectives for enhancing plant cold tolerance. Additionally, we summarize effective measures to alleviate low-temperature stress from multiple angles and identify potential research directions to further explore the mechanisms of plant cold tolerance.

Glucoraphanin (GRA) produced by the hairy roots of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. variety Italica Planch) is converted to the secondary metabolite Sulforaphane (SF), which has anticancer properties under specific conditions, and the synthesis of SF is significantly affected by both Ca2+ and Fe2+. Based on the screening of GRA, SF yields, and Epithiospecififier Protein (ESP) activity, the optimal concentration of exogenously added metal ion chelator Ethylene Glycol bis (2-aminoethyl) Tetraacetic Acid (EGTA) for the treatment of broccoli hairy roots and the optimal treatment time were 8.0 mM EGTA for 48 h. Fe2+ content in hairy roots of broccoli reached the lowest level at 48 h, and also significantly reduce the Ca2+ content, but the Ca2+ content recovered with the treatment time and reached the highest level at 48 h. Analysis of transcriptomics data indicated that the physiological and biochemical responses of broccoli hairy roots to exogenous additions of EGTA to metabolic pathways were mainly mediated by the regulation of the expression of relevant genes involved in signal transduction and amino acid metabolism. The expression of NSP2, NSP5, and ESP decreased with the increase of EGTA treatment time and was lowest at 48 h. The expression of 12 genes, such as AOP1.2.7, GSTF11 increased with the increase of EGTA treatment time, and the highest expression was found at 48 h. This study presented a theoretical basis for the study of the exogenous addition of EGTA to alter Ca2+ and Fe2+ contents and affect SF synthesis.

Acetochlor, as a commonly used pre-emergent herbicide, can be toxic to crops and affect production if used improperly. However, the toxic mechanism of acetochlor on plants is not fully understood. The present study used a combination of transcriptomic analysis and physiological measurements to investigate the effects of short-term (15-day) exposure to different concentrations of acetochlor (1, 10, 20 mg/kg) on the morphology, physiology, and transcriptional levels of pea seedlings, aiming to elucidate the toxic response and resistance mechanisms in pea seedlings under herbicide stress. The results showed that the toxicity of acetochlor to pea seedlings was dose-dependent, manifested as dwarfing and stem base browning with increasing concentrations, especially at 10 mg/kg and above. Analysis of the antioxidant system showed that from the 1 mg/kg treatment, malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and glutathione peroxidase in peas increased with increasing concentrations of acetochlor, indicating oxidative damage. Analysis of the glutathione (GSH) metabolism system showed that under 10 mg/kg treatment, the GSH content of pea plants significantly increased, and GSH transferase activity and gene expression were significantly induced, indicating a detoxification response in plants. Transcriptomic analysis showed that after acetochlor treatment, differentially expressed genes in peas were significantly enriched in the phenylpropane metabolic pathway, and the levels of key metabolites (flavonoids and lignin) were increased. In addition, we found that acetochlor-induced dwarfing of pea seedlings may be related to gibberellin signal transduction. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:2005-2019. © 2024 SETAC.