Long-term human-environment interactions are critical to understanding the processes and patterns of human evolution and societal development. The Dadiwan site, located in the western Loess Plateau, preserves abundant Neolithic cultural remains dating from the early to mid-Holocene. These materials provide important evidence for investigating the developmental trajectory of Neolithic cultures and their relationship with environmental changes. Based on the 2014 excavation at Dadiwan (DDW14), this study presents a comprehensive analysis of 53 AMS14C dates together with the typological classification of more than 4300 pottery sherds. By integrating all previously published radiocarbon dates and relevant research results of Neolithic remains at Dadiwan, a refined chronological framework with higher-resolution for the Neolithic remains at the site is established as follows: Phase I, 7700−7200 cal a BP; Phase II, 6000−5600 cal a BP; Phase III, 5600−5400 cal a BP; Phase IV, 5400–later than ca. 4800 cal a BP; and Phase V, later than ca. 4800 cal a BP and extending into the subsequent period. Within this new chronological framework, we found that the emergence, decline, flourishing, and subsequent decline of Neolithic culture at the site were closely associated with the development and westward diffusion of contemporaneous cultures on the central and eastern Loess Plateau, as well as with changes in hydrothermal conditions and vegetation in the western Loess Plateau. This study reveals the complex internal dynamics of Neolithic cultures at Dadiwan and its close linkages with external environmental changes, providing critical evidence for the understanding of the evolution and underlying mechanisms of past human-environment interactions.

The intersection between ancient agriculture, population, and language during the Neolithic is a widely researched topic across multiple disciplines. In East Asia, multiple waves of westward expansions of dry-land agriculture based on millet cultivation along the Eastern Silk Road (ESR) during the Neolithic have been identified; however, the timing and scope of these expansions remain unresolved. This is due to the uncertain timing of the earliest millet cultivation and a lack of research on the spatial-temporal patterns of this dry-land agriculture expansion. At the Dadiwan site, located in the ESR, abundant charred millet remains have been identified from associated materials in cultural layers between ∼7900 and 4800. Critically, however, direct radiocarbon dates of millet grains remain absent. Based on systematic archeobotanical analysis from the 2014-2015 excavation of the Dadiwan site, 29 samples of charred millet remains were collected and directly AMS radiocarbon dated. This yielded the earliest direct date of millet cultivation (∼7900 BP), both in the Dadiwan and across the ESR. Most of the new direct dates conflict with the previously assumed ages of the cultural strata from which the millet remains were unearthed. This highlights the importance of directly dating charred seed remains from archeological sites when exploring the chronologies of agricultural systems. We compare this new data with previously published dates, the stable isotope analysis of human diet, and archeological evidence, detecting four waves of westward expansion of dry-land agriculture along Neolithic ESR. These waves occurred approximately at 7800 BP, 6500 BP, 5500 BP and 4500 BP, broadly corresponding to cultural phases in the pre-Yangshao, early-mid Yangshao, late Yangshao-early Majiayao, and late Majiayao-Qijia periods, respectively. This work enhances our understanding of the timing and spatial patterns of dry-land agriculture, offering valuable data and insights into the connections between agricultural expansion, population growth, and language in the ancient Neolithic ESR and East Asia.

This study integrates three lines of evidence—spatial analysis of pottery-making remains, standardization of pottery dimensions, and wealth differentiation in burials—to systematically investigate changes in pottery production patterns in the Gan-Qing region and their socio-environmental dynamics. The results indicate that from the Majiayao period to the Qijia period, pottery production gradually centralized, accompanied by the increase in pottery standardization. Wealth differentiation within cemeteries reached its peak during the same time. After 3500 BP, the level of pottery standardization declined, and social differentiation weakened. This transition is closely related to the regional subsistence shift towards pastoral mobility. This study emphasizes that pottery standardization must be cross-validated with direct evidence to indicate specialization; that craft specialization is an institutional expression of social complexity; and that environmental pressure and subsistence transformation jointly shaped the evolution of pottery production patterns in the Gan-Qing region.

Jade had been the symbol of ritual and literati culture for millennia in China. China's prehistory witnessed a rapidly increasing consumption of jade, illustrating a rich diversity of quality, shapes and purposes. Jade mining typically occurred in environmentally marginal zones, demanded intensive labor, and left only ephemeral archaeological traces. How prehistoric communities organized and sustained such resource procurement under these constraints has therefore remained unclear. This issue is addressed in the current study through the first systematically excavated jade mining site in China (Mazongshan, 420-160 BC), revealing a distinct economic life that closely adapted to local geographic and social conditions. Multiple animal species (working cattle, domestic horses, donkeys and Bactrian camels) were coordinated to facilitate tedious jade-mining and related activities. Particularly significant is the identification of the earliest radiocarbon-dated donkey and camel remains thus far recovered from the Hexi Corridor. Beyond their subsistence value, these pack animals likely also facilitated local jade extraction and overland transport, linking the Hexi Corridor with major jade consumption centers in the Yellow and Yangtze River basins.

The northeastern Tibetan Plateau served as a key gateway for prehistoric high-altitude dispersal, yet the role of animal resources in sustaining early settlements remains poorly understood. Here, we integrate zooarchaeology, AMS C-14 dating, stable isotope (delta C-13, delta N-15), and ancient DNA analyses of faunal specimens from four Late Neolithic sites in this region to reconstruct a two-stage strategy of animal resource exploitation. Between 6000 and 4300 cal BP, human occupation was largely confined to low-elevation valleys, where hunting provided the majority of meat and modest pig herds were maintained alongside millet cultivation. Notably, blue sheep and golden monkeys during this period exhibit distinctly elevated delta C-13 values, indicating sustained provisioning with millet or its by-products and providing early evidence consistent with their short-term management or foddering on the Tibetan Plateau. After 4300 cal BP, the introduction of frost-tolerant wheat, barley, and domestic sheep/goats facilitated expansion to higher elevations. Management of blue sheep ceased, while yak domestication (similar to 3750 cal BP) provided a cold-adapted livestock complement. These findings demonstrate that flexible strategies encompassing hunting, foddering, temporary captivity, and eventual domestication supported sustained Neolithic settlement across the northeastern Tibetan Plateau.

Sophisticated millet-pig agriculture significantly influenced cultural expansion and early social complexity in the Yellow River Valley during the Neolithic period. However, tempo and role of millet-pig agriculture in shaping early social complexity on the Chinese Loess Plateau remain poorly constrained, largely due to the absence of an effective system for identifying and quantifying domestic pigs. Here we develop a comprehensive system for identifying domestic pigs that combines K-means clustering of pig collagen carbon and nitrogen isotope data, with the optimal number of clusters determined using Within-cluster Sum of Squares (WSS), newly obtained radiocarbon dates, systematic zooarchaeological evidence, and archaeological contextual information from four sites in the western Loess Plateau. By cross-checking the results of our improved identification method with multiple sources of evidence, we reconstruct a three-step intensification of the millet-pig agricultural system in the Neolithic western Loess Plateau, identified through changes in crop structure, pig management, and isotopic evidence. A synthesis of Neolithic sites across the Chinese Loess Plateau suggests that asynchronous cultural expansion and socially complex processes in the western and eastern Loess Plateau were likely influenced by differences in the timing at which sophisticated millet-pig agricultural system emerged, under contrasting regional natural and social conditions. This study elucidates the trajectory of the millet-pig agricultural system in the Chinese Loess Plateau and demonstrates its pivotal role as part of the cultural expansion witnessed during the Neolithic period.

The Loess Plateau of China served as the cradle for rain-fed agriculture based on millet cultivation during the Neolithic Period. The spatial distribution of human livelihoods in the area changed significantly during the Bronze Age in relation to early trans-Eurasian exchange. However, the transformation that the subsistence landscape underwent in the Loess Plateau from the Zhou to Han Dynasty (1046 BCE–220 CE), a transitional period from kingdoms giving way to empires in China, has not been well understood in the Loess Plateau. To explore this issue, we reviewed and analyzed previously published carbon and nitrogen stable isotopic data obtained from human bones, as well as archaeobotanical and zooarchaeological data from the Loess Plateau. Our results suggest that millet cultivation and livestock raising were the major subsistence strategies in the Loess Plateau from the Zhou to Han Dynasty, while the cultivation of wheat, barley and the use of wildlife in human subsistence varied across different periods and regions. In the northern and western parts of the Loess Plateau, human diets changed significantly from the Spring and Autumn Period (770–176 BCE) to the Warring States Period (476–221 BCE). The proportion of meat in the diet decreased, whereas that of millet increased significantly. Subsequently, human consumption of animal products significantly increased in the Loess Plateau during the Qin-Han dynasties (221 BCE–220 CE). Also during this time, the southeastern part of the Loess Plateau maintained the traditional millet agriculture, and the crop structure became more diversified. Geopolitical change, geographic environment, and climate fluctuations were influential factors that contributed to the spatio-temporal variations of human livelihoods from the Zhou to the Han Dynasty in the Loess Plateau.

The Xihetan Site is a Neolithic site located in Jiuquan, Gansu Province, where a large number of white bead ornaments have been unearthed. Through various scientific analysis techniques, including ultra-depth microscopic observation, Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS), these bead ornaments were identified as having an inner core composed of dolomite or vanadate minerals and an outer layer with a calcite structure, indicating they are seawater pearls. The pearls unearthed at Xihetan date back approximately 4,086 to 3,820 years, making them the earliest and largest in quantity discovered to date in the Hexi Corridor region. Based on the global context of Neolithic pearl discoveries and considering the co-occurrence of these pearls with artifacts bearing Western cultural characteristics, such as bronze objects, Maceheads, and seashells, it is speculated that these pearls likely originated from the Persian Gulf region and were transmitted to the Hexi Corridor via Central Asia. This study provides new material evidence for exploring cultural exchanges between the East and the West during the late Neolithic period.

The domestication of the genus Equus has driven long-distance exchanges along the pre- and historical Silk Roads, but their dispersal history in China, particularly the use of hybrids between horses and donkeys, remains cloudy. Here we analyzed ancient DNA (aDNA) of ten Equus specimens from Mazongshan jade mining site (400-160 BCE, Northwestern China), using the published Zonkey pipeline and our developed method on sequencing coverage/depth. The identified assemblage of three horses, three donkeys, and four hinnies represents the earliest direct archaeological evidence for the presence of donkeys and their hybrids with horses in China to date. We argue that multiple Equus livestock were already integrated into the trans-regional trades between Central Plains and the Western Regions prior to the opening of the Silk Roads. Additionally, the absence of mule was quite different from ancient Roman contexts, highlighting the adaptation of livestock management strategies to environmental constraints and socioeconomic demands.

This study examines the emergence and diversification of subsistence patterns in the Upper Yellow River region of northern China between 2500 and 1500 BCE through a systematic review of published archaeological evidence. Drawing on data from 54 settlement and burial sites, we investigate how domesticated herd animals—introduced from Central Asia and/or Mongolia—were incorporated into local subsistence practices and lifeways. The results demonstrate that pastoralism did not develop as a uniform practice across the region; instead, communities chose locally adapted strategies. In the Tao and Upper Wei River Valleys, herding was integrated into established pig–millet agricultural systems, whereas groups in the Huangshui River Valley pursued mixed subsistence strategies combining herding, hunting, and agriculture, with low reliance on pigs. In both sub-regions, the presence of large settlements with multiple architectural features suggests relatively long-term site occupation. By comparison, communities in the Hexi Corridor exhibit a predominance of sheep husbandry and hunting, with limited pig-farming and few settlement features, possibly indicating a greater reliance on herd animals and higher residential mobility. Through a critical assessment of legacy datasets, this study also highlights key limitations in existing data quality, contextual resolution, and analytical practice, and proposes suggestions for improving future data collection and interpretation.

Spatio-temporal changes in animal exploitation strategies and their influencing factors in the Yellow River valley in China have been extensively reviewed, particularly during the Neolithic to Bronze Age (similar to 8000-1000 BCE). The Zhou to Han Dynasty (1046 BCE-220 CE) witnessed transitions from the era of kingdoms to the imperial age, as well as prehistoric transcontinental exchanges to opening of the Silk Road. However, the importance of geopolitical shifts for livelihood transformations during this time remains little explored, largely due to limited zooarchaeological data. We report new zooarchaeological evidence and radiocarbon dates from four sites spanning the Zhou and Han Dynasty in the Hulu River valley. Results show a decline in omnivorous livestock (pigs and dogs) and a marked rise in herbivores (sheep/goats, cattle, horses) from the Western Zhou (1046-771 BCE) to the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BCE) and the Warring States period (476-221 BCE). During the Qin-Han Dynasty (221 BCE-220 CE), omnivorous livestock and wildlife became more significant, whereas herbivorous livestock decreased. Comparing published zooarchaeological and historical evidence across the Yellow River valley, we detect increasing reliance on herbivorous over omnivorous livestock in the upper reaches, but a declining reliance in the mid-lower reaches, from the Western Zhou to Eastern Zhou (770-221 BCE). During the Qin-Han Dynasty, omnivorous livestock declined in the middle reaches of the Yellow River valley, but strongly predominated in the lower reaches. These divergent regional trajectories of animal exploitation strategies are primarily attributed to geopolitical shifts from the Zhou to Han Dynasty, along with multi-factor interaction.

The Yellow and Yangtze river basins in China are among the world's oldest independent agricultural centers, known for the domestication of millet and rice, respectively, yet their genetic history is poorly understood. Here, we present genome-wide data from 74 Middle Neolithic genetic samples from these regions, showing marked genetic differentiation but bidirectional gene flow, supporting a demic diffusion model of mixed farming. Yellow River populations exhibit distinct genetic substructures resulting from interactions with surrounding groups during the mid-Neolithic expansion of millet agriculture. Upper Yellow River populations are genetically linked to Tibetan Plateau populations and possess the earliest adaptive EPAS1 haplotype (∼5,800 BP) among modern humans. Meanwhile, Yangtze River rice farmers show genetic affinity with Neolithic to present-day southeast coastal China and Austronesian populations, tracing the origins of proto-Austronesians farther north to the Yangtze River. These findings offer new insights into the impact of mid-Neolithic agricultural expansion on human genetic history.

This paper presents a study of 45 iron objects unearthed from the ancient Jingbao’er jade mining site in the western Hexi Corridor, dating from the Warring States period to the early West Han dynasty (about fourth–first centuries BCE). Metallographic and slag inclusion analyses were conducted to investigate the material features and their potential correlation with intended applications. Of the analysed items, 38 were made of cast iron, some of which had been decarburized or graphitized through annealing treatment to enhance their properties. Seven artefacts were identified as bloomery iron, indicating a distinct iron production tradition, likely localized and small in scale. It is conveyed that by the late first millennium BCE, the supply of iron artefacts at the Jingbao’er site was predominantly derived from the cast‐iron system, with evidence of regional bloomery smelting highlighting the complexity of iron production during this period. These observations offer new insights into the adoption of iron in the Hexi Corridor and the dynamics of regional technological exchange.

The intensification of millet agriculture facilitated the development of ancient civilization in northern China. In Inner Mongolia and the Central Plains, the intensification of millet farming was relatively continuous. However, prior evidence from the western Loess Plateau (WLP) has suggested an indistinct sequence of millet cultivation and a time lag between the initial intensification of millet agriculture and subsequent expansion of millet farming. We report on new stable isotopic data and radiocarbon dates from the Gedachuan site which challenge that interpretation. Our results indicate a gradual intensification and expansion of millet agriculture across the whole WLP. They attest to intensive broomcorn millet-based farming underpinning the emergence and development of the agrarian society in the WLP during the early-middle Yangshao period (∼6300–5500 BP), and to an intensification of the higher-yielding foxtail millet–based farming leading to the rapid growth of population in the WLP and expansion of millet cultivation after 5300 BP.

As the first domestic species, dogs likely dispersed with different cultural groups during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed 73 ancient dog genomes, including 17 newly sequenced individuals sampled from East Asia to the West Eurasian Steppe spanning nearly 10,000 years. Our results indicate correlations between the ancestry of dogs and specific ancient human populations from eastern Europe to Eastern Siberia, including Ancient Paleo-Siberians, Eastern hunter-gatherers, East Asians, and Steppe pastoralists. We also identify multiple shifts in the ancestry of dogs that coincide with specific dispersals of hunter-gatherers, farmers, and pastoralists. Combined, our results reveal the long-term and integral role that dogs played in a multitude of human societies.

The history of agricultural development is of great importance to understanding the evolution of human societies. In this respect, one important location is the Hei River Basin (HRB), an ecotone in northwestern China where prehistoric patterns of cultivation are known to have changed significantly. To identify the factors behind the subsequent development of agriculture in the HRB in the historical period, a hitherto under-researched topic, we employed paleoclimate records, historical documents, radiocarbon dating, and archaeobotanical analyses from seven ancient cities and one large settlement. The results demonstrated a shift from mixed-crop farming to the cultivation of (mainly) barley and wheat during the Wei, Jin Northern and Southern dynasties, Song-Yuan and early Ming period, with the latter crop increasingly predominant. Technological innovations and increased labour power brought about by external population migration resulting from geopolitical changes in northern China were likely responsible for the shift in crop cultivation in the HRB, rather than climate change. This study provides important archaeobotanical evidence for the agricultural development of the HRB over the historical period and highlights multiple factors that seem to have influenced the evolution of agriculture in the region.

The natural environment of the Gansu-Qinghai region in northwest China exhibits spatial variation, resulting in distinct adaptive strategies among populations in different geographical areas. In this study, we analyzed the diachronic trend and regional variations in caries prevalence among 10 different middle and late-Holocene groups by examining dental caries data to explore the correlation between different adaptation strategies and caries frequency. Frequency data was used to compare dental caries between populations, and the Chi-square test was employed to detect statistical differences. A multidisciplinary approach was employed to investigate the relationship between these changes and the adaptive strategies adopted by the populations in this region. The result shows that there was a gradual increase in caries prevalence over time in eastern Gansu, which corresponded with development of millet farming and social hierarchy. In the Hexi Corridor, caries prevalence exhibited fluctuations attributable to climate variability, human migration, and regime change. The research proposes that changes in adaptive strategies due to various social and environmental factors are reflected in human teeth, while also presenting a novel endeavor of aggregating a large, multisite bioarchaeological dataset in order to investigate the interactions between Holocene populations and palaeoenvironments in northwest China.

The dispersal and development of pastoralism during the Bronze Age profoundly influenced human livelihoods and adaptability to diverse environments in northwestern China. Although diachronic changes in the composition of animal resources have been discussed, the specific utilization form of these resources remains unclear due to the lack of age-class and sex ratio data for inferring population structure. Here, we report new zooarchaeological data from the Haizang site dated between 4000 and 3500 cal. yr BP in an oasis in northwestern China’s Hexi Corridor. The 7092 identified animal remains are dominated by sheep/goat (53.44

Broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) is among the earliest domesticated staple crops in the world’s agricultural history and facilitated the development of several early agrarian cultures, particularly those originating in northern China. However, the propagation route of broomcorn millet in China from the Middle Ages to the present remains unclear. The aim of this study is to explore the genetic affinity between ancient and modern millet samples, trace the genetic origins and diffusion pathways of broomcorn millet, and provide insights into its domestication and spread. To achieve this, we sequence ancient DNA from broomcorn millet remains excavated from the Chashan Village cemetery (AD 691) in Gansu Province, China. Phylogenetic and population genetic analyses, integrating ancient and modern millet genomes, reveal a close genetic relationship between ancient millet and contemporary millet from Ningxia Province (445 km away from Chashan Village), suggesting a potential origin for the Chashan millet. This finding aligns with the tomb’s epitaph, which documents the reburial of the tomb’s owner, who was originally buried in Ningxia, and provides important archaeological evidence for understanding the interaction between geopolitical dynamics and the natural environment in northwest China during the late seventh century. Furthermore, outgroup-f3 and D statistics evidence suggests substantial genetic interactions between ancient millet and modern varieties from the Loess Plateau, Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, and Northeast Plain, indicating the dispersal route of broomcorn millet, along with human migration routes, from the northwest to northern China and ultimately to the northeast region, starting from the Middle Ages onward. This study enhances our understanding of millet’s genetic history, offers a novel perspective on burial archaeology, and provides valuable insights into the origins, domestication, and diffusion of broomcorn millet.

The eastern ancient Silk Road (EASR)-an area critical in linking Central China with the pastoralist societies of the eastern Eurasian Steppe and Central Asia-was a key component to trans-Eurasian exchange since the Bronze Age. Despite the area's importance, not much is known regarding the spatio-temporal variation of human diets and the associated subsistence practices during the Bronze Age. This dearth of information is largely due to the absence of key evidence from the EASR during 3000-2200 years before present (yr B.P.). In this study, we report new carbon and nitrogen isotopic data, including radiocarbon dates of human and animal bones unearthed from the Shijia-Yucun (SJ-YC) site in the EASR, dated between similar to 2700 and 2500 yr B.P. During our target period of study, the humans, pigs and dogs living in SJ-YC mainly consumed C4 foods (millets and millet by-products), while herbivorous livestock consumed a mix of C3 and C4 plants. Combined with published isotopic and archaeobotanical data, we detected an asynchronous transformation of dietary patterns in different regions of the EASR during the Bronze Age. Between 3500 and 2200 yr B.P., staple foods for most western EASR humans shifted from C4 to mixed C3 and C4 foods. In the eastern EASR, C4 foods remained dominant in human diets throughout the Bronze Age. Patterns in dietary changes are not completely consistent with the various trajectory of crop cultivation. We propose that, in the context of Bronze Age trans-Eurasian exchanges, humans adopted different livelihoods throughout the EASR to deal with the survival pressures and social customs associated with variations in climate, population, and geopolitical factors. Our work provides vital evidence for dietary and subsistence variation in the EASR and explores the complicated relationship between Bronze Age humans and their environment.