China is the earlier country in the world to master zinc smelting technology,there is a record of zinc smelting technology in Tiangong Kaiwu in 1637.Since the 18th century,the zinc smelting technology in Europe had become more advanced than China,and there had been more popular British zinc smelting method,Belgian zinc smelting method and Silesian method.In the late 19th century,these technical knowledge began to be translated into China by the Translation Department of Kiangnan Arsenal.During this period,China had always applied the traditional method of zinc smelting.It was not until 1934,nearly half a century after the introduction of this knowledge,that the first zinc refinery using the Western method was built in China.The main questions to be investigated in this paper are the following:Through what medium was the knowledge of Western zinc refining introduced into China?What knowledge was introduced?Was those knowledge related to the first practical application of Western zinc refining technology in China?By analyzing the translated texts of the translations of Kiangnan Arsenal and sorting out the historical materials,it can be concluded that the three translated books,namely Jinshi Shibie,Baozang Xingyan,and Kuangxue Kaozhi,systematically introduced three kinds of zinc smelting technical knowledge popular in the West at that time,among which Baozang Xingyan is the most detailed and systematic.In terms of the efficiency of zinc refining,all three western technologies are more efficient than the traditional Chinese zinc refining technology.The article also provides a preliminary reconstruction of the application of those knowledge in the first Western-style zinc refinery in China,the Shuikoushan Western-style Zinc Refinery in Hunan province.Several attempts of western zinc refining had been made in Hunan,but all were unsuccessful.It was not until 1934 that Raoshi,the chief engineer of the Shuikoushan Western-style Zinc Refinery in Hunan,succeeded in realizing the Western method of zinc refining after a number of trials,and the technology he chose was the Belgian technology.The Shuikoushan Western-style Zinc Refinery has the following characteristics:Firstly,it has a very prominent feature of the localization in the practice of knowledge,compared with other industries that directly purchased foreign equipment,it was realized by choosing its own process and developing its own equipment on the basis of the enterprise's reference to the technical principles of the Western style.Secondly,there was a gap of about half a century between the importation of zinc refining knowledge and its industrial application,and the importation of knowledge did not produce immediate results,which was due to some complex reasons including China's well-established traditional zinc refining technological system,the market,and technical education,etc.This paper provides the first overview of Western zinc refining knowledge imported into China in the modern era,suggests for the first time that the earliest weatern technology to be successfully practiced in China was the Belgian zinc refining method,and discusses the process of technological selection of the Shuikoushan Western-style Zinc Refinery and the factors that influenced the implementation of the knowledge into practice.

Kaiyuan Tongbao coin was the primary circulation currency during the Tang Dynasty. It defined the Chinese coinage model for over a thousand years afterward. Despite repeated government prohibition, coin counterfeiting prevailed through Tang Dynasty. Such activities resulted in a large amount of counterfeit coins entering the market, which undermined economy and led to social instability. However, as a key to exploring the issue of counterfeiting, information on the alloy composition, provenance and the production mode of the counterfeit coins are not yet clear. This paper presents the first comprehensive scientific study on counterfeit coins from a hoard in Hunan Province in South China (a total of 39 kg and approximately 8000 coins were found). Radiocarbon dating of the bamboo weaving wrapped coins indicated that the hoard dated from 668 to 874 CE (Tang Dynasty). Chemical composition analysis, morphological and metallographic images and lead isotope analysis of 78 hoarded Kaiyuan Tongbao coins had been obtained. Combined with historical records, ore materials probably originated from the local Huangshaping and Baoshan polymetallic deposits in the Nanling metallogenic belt in South China. Results showed that there were 16 types of alloy materials, primarily cast alloys of the Cu-Fe-As system. Most of the coins were minted using a Cu-Pb syngenetic ore rich in many elements from Fe, As, Sb, and Sn. One discovery is the utilizing of a by-product of local ore smelting which was called the speiss. The hoard coins studied in this paper provide the first evidence of the use of speiss for coinage in ancient China. Such material sources and manufacture technique made convenience for coin counterfeiting, which explains repeated failures of central government’s attempts to eliminate coin counterfeiting, especially for those mining areas.

中国古代采矿技术至明清时期已全面发展,有关清代云南采矿的记载较丰富,而涉及其他地区采矿技术的史料较少.郴桂矿厂是清代湖南最大的铜、铅、锌等币材原料产地,梳理现存的一些矿冶技术方面的史料,发现清代郴桂矿厂对矿石有独特的认识,形成了与清代云南不同且独特的矿石分类、命名方法,在找矿、开采、矿井通风、排水、照明等方面采用中国古代传统的采矿技术,与清代云南矿厂相似.研究首次揭示了清代湖南识矿和采矿技术,丰富了对清代采矿技术的认识.

The smelting of zinc is considered as one of the most challenging technologies in ancient civilization. Compared with non-sulfide zinc ores, the smelting of zinc sulfide ores is more complicated since they have to be roasted before smelting. The technological smelting process of the ancient zinc metallurgy technology has been studied and partly reconstructed. However, the roasting technology, including the roasting conditions and involved metallurgical processes, is still unclear. The discovery of the zinc smelting site of Doulingxia dates back to the Qing dynasty (CE 1636–1912), and for the first time provides us with critical archeological evidence to gain an insight into the roasting technology in ancient zinc metallurgy technology. In this paper, the microstructure and mineralogical features of the zinc calcine relics found at the Doulingxia site were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM-EDS). To reconstruct the metallurgical process, the original roasting temperature of the unearthed zinc calcine was estimated by thermogravimetric analysis and differential thermal analysis (TG-DTA), combined with reheating experiments and phase composition analysis as well as microstructural analysis. The simulation experiments were conducted to reconstruct the roasting process. The results indicated that the original roasting temperature of the unearthed zinc calcine should be in a range of 650–850 °C, most probably near 750 °C. As long as the retention time is long enough, all sphalerite can be oxidized when the roasting temperature is above 650 °C. The final roasting products mainly include tiny porous particles of ZnFe2O4, Fe2O3, PbSO4, and ZnO. These findings are helpful to reconstruct the ancient zinc metallurgy technology of zinc sulfide ores.

绿紫坳矿厂是清代湖南桂阳州最大的铜矿厂,也是清代湖南最大的铸钱铜料产地,持续开采约一个世纪.2018年4月,多家单位对绿紫坳铜矿采冶遗址进行调查,发现了矿洞、崖刻以及大量的炉渣堆积.梳理文献资料和考古材料,对绿紫坳矿厂开发历史、采矿、炼铜、产品和管理等进行了初步研究,绿紫坳矿厂采用矿井开采法开矿,炼铜采用复杂的"硫化矿—冰铜—铜"技术.乾隆十七年(1752)开始,绿紫坳矿厂由委员管理,形成高效的开采和冶炼一体化的矿厂,为长沙宝南局提供了绝大部分的铸钱铜料.

湖南省桂阳县是中国古代炼锌的重要地区之一.自2015年以来,湖南省文物考古研究所等单位共调查发现了 19处炼锌遗址和1处炼锌冶炼罐生产遗址.考古调查与文献记载显示,桂阳炼锌应在明代就已开始,并延续至清代晚期,规模逐步扩大.在这些遗址上采集到数量不等的冶炼罐,冶炼罐的形态反映出从矮胖形向瘦长形转变的演化规律.此次系统的调查对于从整体上认识桂阳炼锌遗址分布、规模、保存状况,以及炼锌技术的发展提供了重要材料,对于研究中国古代炼锌的起源、发展和传播具有重要意义.

清代皇家内廷、园囿、寺庙的庭院中安设有很多大型铜器,包括缸、鼎炉、吉祥动物等,均由清宫内务府造办处铸炉处制造,常耗时数月至数年,是铜器制造史上的重大工程.通过对内务府造办处档案的梳理,发现乾隆朝制造室外铜器分工细致,以黄铜为原料,由拨蜡法或翻砂法铸造而成,并采用剔凿、锉刮、嵌补、打磨、錾刻、烧古、镀金等多种工艺进行修整、装饰,用工量甚大.可为认识明清铜器的制造技术提供重要的史料依据.

桂阳州是清代湖南金属锌的主要产地,炼锌业主要是为了铸钱.近年来,桂阳发现了一批清代炼锌遗址,为研究清代桂阳州炼锌业提供了实物资料.本文综合考古和史料证据分析研究清代桂阳州炼锌业,揭开清代桂阳州炼锌业的整体面貌.研究发现清代桂阳州的炼锌业从采矿、冶炼到产品流向,政府在其中都起到了重要作用,最后形成桂阳州特有的炼锌业管理模式.

本文通过对蒸馏罐和炉渣的显微组织和化学成分的分析,结合考古发现和文献记载,详细复原桐木岭清代炼锌遗址的炼锌技术.分析发现,桐木岭蒸馏罐各个部位设计合理,冶炼罐可以重复使用;该遗址主要使用含铅的硫化锌矿,焙烧不彻底,也使用可以直接冶炼的氧化锌矿;蒸馏罐在炼锌炉中摆放规范,冶炼和冷凝温度控制较好,技术效率较高.该研究对更好地认识中国古代炼锌技术具有重要的意义.

锌是一种很特别的金属,在冶炼还原过程极易挥发,它的生产需要复杂的还原和冷凝装置.在古代8种主要金属中,金属锌出现最晚.公元18世纪工业化炼锌以前,只有古代印度和中国可以大规模生产单质金属锌.从20世纪20年代起,科技史界主要依据古代文献资料、 黄铜文物的科学分析和传统工艺调查来研究中国古代炼锌技术及发展情况.21世纪初以来,中国科技史界的专家学者在重庆、 广西和湖南等发现了大量明清时期炼锌遗址,对这些遗址的考古调查、发掘及对冶炼遗物的科技分析,为中国古代炼锌技术研究带来了新的契机.文章回顾近年来作者参与炼锌遗址的考古工作和研究情况,并对未来的研究进行展望.

中国古代存在一种坩埚炼铅技术,即在坩埚中用铁从方铅矿取代出铅.近年来,在北方地区发现多处坩埚炼铅遗址,多为辽金元时期.本文对河南桐柏围山遗址出土的坩埚和坩埚渣样品进行了宏观和微观观察及化学分析.结果表明,围山所用的坩埚为圜底圆筒形罐,制作坩埚的主要原料是高岭土类原料,掺有高岭土粘土颗粒,有的还加有木炭或煤炭.坩埚渣的玻璃态基体中存在大量的石英颗粒,少量细小铅冰铜和铅颗粒,其中一个坩埚渣中存在大量的铁块,据此判断采用了铁还原法.另外还初步讨论了坩埚炼铅遗址的分布和年代问题.

To deepen the knowledge of bronze melting technology of the pre-Qin periods, this paper tries to investigate the chemical compositions and microstructures of two types of bronze melting vessels from Xiaomingtun site of Yin Ruins with metallography microscope and SEM-EDS, to preliminarily study their materials,techniques and fuctions. It is found that the crucibles were small-sized, open-mouthed vessels, while the furnaces were large-sized shaft furnaces and the main type of melting vessels of Xiaomingtun; bronze melting vessles of different sizes were to adapt to the casting of bronzes of different sizes.

坩埚炼铅法是中国传统炼铅技术中一种特别的冶炼方法,即在坩埚中用铁从硫化铅中还原出铅.本文梳理有关坩埚炼铅的文献资料,详细介绍该技术的冶炼过程,包括炉子的建造、坩埚的制作、配料、冶炼操作和金银的提取.另外,对近年来发现的两处古代坩埚炼铅遗址出土的坩埚和炉渣进行科学检测,以复原当时的技术.并与蒸馏法炼锌、坩埚炼铁等中国传统坩埚冶炼技术作比较,阐述坩埚炼铅的技术特征.