Early settlements faced hydrological opportunities and constraints that informed transitions to urban living. Along the way, imbalances between urban expansion and infrastructural development and hydrological systems could threaten the sustainability of growing settlements. Here using archeological data and spatial modeling, we examine 2,106 early settlements dating from 8.5 ka BP to 2.72 ka BP in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River Basin. We trace how the distribution of settlements and hydrological conditions changed over time, focusing on associated trajectories of spatial pattern and hydrological adaptation. Results show that hydrological factors consistently influenced settlement patterns, even as settlements built infrastructure to manage floods and water access. Despite these efforts, cultural decline still occurred, revealing a persistent asymmetry between settlement pattern and hydrological adaptability. Our findings provide historical insight into how long-term vulnerabilities emerged in flood-prone environments, offering perspectives for understanding both past and future challenges in urban sustainability.

It is widely acknowledged that the metallurgical industry offers important insights for understanding the inter-regional relationship and socio-economic status of Bronze Age China. However, there still remains a long-lasting debate on the political-economic landscape of the Shang period, despite decades of efforts to reconstruct the bronze production and metal distribution system. The current research aims to contribute to this discussion by providing a new perspective from metallurgical remains at a peripheral low-level site. A comprehensive methodology involving SEM-EDS, lead isotope and in-situ trace element analyses was employed for investigating the slag samples uncovered at the Middle Shang period small site Yingshuisi in the Middle Huai River Valley region. Two synchronous bronze production flows were constructed. The first one started from refining the raw copper materials and then cementation with cassiterite minerals to produce tin bronze products, while the other one employed a co-smelting practice via mixing copper ores and cassiterite. They shared the same source of tin alloying materials but had different provenances of copper resources. This research revealed a highly dynamic picture of Yingshuisi which involved multiple metal sources and technological choices. Some of these were significantly distinctive from their adjacent regional center Taijiasi. More importantly, these new findings suggest the peripheral low-level sites were not entirely affiliated with the regional center and have more complex technological traditions, which indicates a more pluralistic landscape in terms of cultural and technological interaction during the Middle Shang period.

ABSTRACT The alloy composition, microstructure, and lead isotope ratios of the bronze and lead–tin artifacts from Tomb No. M1 in Wangshanqiao Cemetery, Jingzhou, were analyzed to characterize the technical and resource features to reflect the diversity of metals used for the nobles of the Chu State. The results show that the alloy ratio of the bronze vessels from Tomb No. M1 in Wangshanqiao Cemetery is appropriate, with moderate tin content, and non‐forged vessels have higher lead content than forged vessels. There are also various attachment connection techniques, including casting and soldering. The standardization level of the production of other types of bronze artifacts is lower than that of the bronze vessels. In addition, tin, lead, and lead–tin alloys were used to produce artifacts. The metal ores used in the production of the metal artifacts from Tomb No. M1 in Wangshanqiao Cemetery were diverse, indicating the flow of various metal resources within the Chu State.

From the Western Zhou to the Han Dynasty, the Qigucheng Site was an important centre in eastern Shandong. This site contains a rich collection of long-lasting cast iron and ceramic industrial remains from the Han Dynasty. Although researchers have gained a comprehensive understanding of ancient Chinese ironmaking technology, such work has mainly focused on iron artifacts and slag, with few studies examining the ironmaking furnace itself, which includes facilities for smelting, melting, forging iron, and other high-temperature processes for heat treatment. Research exploring the origins and development of China’s unique cast iron smelting technology through the analysis of furnace wall materials has not been fully carried out. To address this gap, this study used petrographic analysis and chemical analyses to investigate the cast iron production-related ceramic materials in the Han dynasty through archaeological excavation and scientific analyses, and revealed the possible material and technological connections between metallurgical and ceramic industries at that time. The findings suggest that craftsmen at the time had mature technical choices for metallurgical ceramics. Further, despite variations in functional properties, metallurgical ceramics might share a common geological origin, as indicated by the consistent mineral composition of clay matrix and quartz silt across samples, indicating that different categories of technical ceramics may have shared technological practices.

This review summarizes the current state of bronze provenance studies in China, highlighting both recent trends and challenges for scholars working with Chinese artefacts and beyond. The first section addresses the issues surrounding highly radiogenic lead (HRL) from the Shang period, arguably the most widely discussed topic in Chinese bronze provenance research. In addition to providing an overview of the current discourse, this section emphasizes two critical questions: the metal(s) with which HRL is associated, and the meaning of its isochron-like trend line. Clarifying these questions could fundamentally alter our understanding of HRL and the metal circulation systems of the Shang period. The second section focuses on the emerging pattern in the rapidly growing body of publications on lead isotope analysis of Chinese bronzes, particularly the synchronic alteration of lead isotope features across vast regions over two millennia. Additionally, this section reviews specific spatial-temporal units, which have generated significant research in recent years and may reveal distinct metal circulation systems. The following sections shift attention to the provenance of copper and tin, essential components in the production of bronze artefacts but often overlooked in provenance studies. Methodological challenges are discussed, with a particular emphasis on the widely used trace element analysis technique. Furthermore, increasing archaeological evidence from metallurgical workshops related to mining, smelting, and alloying practices of these metals holds potential to shed new light on these issues in the near future. Finally, the review offers a brief discussion on model-informed provenance investigations, reflecting a global trend in the field, which is expected to have a substantial impact on the study of Chinese materials in various ways.

More than one hundred tin-covered clay ritual vessels unearthed from the Shijia Cemetery have been dated to the Spring and Autumn period. Multi-method analyses confirm a production process involving molding and drying of the clay body, followed by physical adhesion of pre-formed tin or lead-tin alloy foils to the clay body’s surface. Distinct from traditional bronze or pottery ritual vessels, such artifacts not only reflect an innovative application of tin to clay ritual vessels during this period but also establish a novel technical approach for ritual production and possess significant archaeological value. The origin, production motivations, and technical characteristics of these objects require further systematic investigation.

Shijia Cemetery and the adjacent Yucun Site are the first systematically excavated large-scale Zhou Dynasty (ca. 1046-256 BCE) funerary and settlement sites in eastern Longdong, Gansu Province, China. Bronzes from these sites show hybrid traits, blending Zhou culture traditions with Qin culture and Northern Steppe culture influences. This study examines the casting cores using petrography, major and trace elements, and REE and Sr isotopes. The analyses indicate that the casting core is primarily made of easily available loess without any temper or levigation. Rude Medium and miniature ritual vessels were cast locally from loess. By contrast, finely crafted miniature and large ritual vessels from medium tombs display distinct geochemical deviations, indicating non-local production. Although their specific provenance remains undetermined, these results not only indicate diverse sources of bronze metalwork in the Longdong region during the Zhou Dynasty but also reflect active intercultural exchange and the circulation of bronzes across the northwestern frontier.

This study presents the analytical results of iron implements from Han tombs in the Youxian area of eastern Hunan, a region within the southern territories of the Han empire that has received limited attention in archaeological and archaeometallurgical research. The findings indicate that most of these objects were made using the solid-state decarburization of cast iron. Two objects containing slag inclusions were identified within the assemblage, though further study is required to confirm their manufacturing techniques. The results reveal a manufacturing system primarily based on cast iron technology. Despite the small sample size, comparison with analytical results from other areas in present-day Hunan demonstrates that iron implements from this region were predominantly manufactured using the solid-state decarburization of cast iron, with relatively scarce evidence of fined iron. This pattern contrasts with contemporary findings from Lingnan, which include not only bloomery iron but also a higher proportion of objects potentially related to fined iron. The factors underlying these regional variations are discussed, highlighting the importance of additional case studies to better understand the “mosaic” of the iron-making techniques across the southern frontiers of the Han empire.

The renowned Anyang moulds from the late Shang period represent the pinnacle of piece-mould technology in ancient China. This research examines recently excavated mould materials from the Xindian site in Anyang. A combination of archaeological, geological, and targeted experimental samples has been used to systematically reconstruct the cha & icirc;ne operatoire using OM, SEM-EDS, micro-CT scanning, FTIR and Raman spectroscopy. Ancient craftspeople intentionally prepared four distinct pastes for specific components of the mould assembly, employing varied raw material selection and processing strategies. Diverse finishing techniques were used to refine the decoration on outer moulds. Outer moulds and inner cores were fired at different temperatures and then reassembled, possibly undergoing preheating before casting. Coatings serving as releasing agents and sealing materials were identified. The technological choices made by ancient craftspeople indicate extensive knowledge and expertise, balancing stringent performance requirements with efficient production. The high level of craftsmanship applied to the Anyang moulds provided a foundation for the extraordinary artistic and stylistic achievements in bronze production during the late Shang period.

The coal-based solid-state reduction of ilmenite is a fundamental and common pretreatment process in the titanium industry. Investigating the mechanism of coal-based solid-state reduction of ilmenite elucidates Fe/Ti separation and phase transformation, providing theoretical guidance for preparing Ti-rich materials from reduced ilmenite, optimizing processes, and enhancing TiO2 grade, with significant implications. Firstly, the pre-oxidation experiment of Panzhihua ilmenite was carried out, and then the solid state reduction experiment and pre-oxidation of Ilmenite was carried out by using bituminous coal at 800 degrees C-1150 degrees C, and the relevant characterization analysis of the test samples was carried out. The results show that the pre-oxidation treatment can destroy the compact structure of ilmenite, which is beneficial to the reduction of ilmenite. Many pores are produced in the reduced ilmenite due to the formation of many metallic iron. The enrichment of MgO and MnO in the reduction process of ilmenite hinders the further reduction of FeO; during the ilmenite reduction, the honeycomb-like rutile (TiO2) phase develops, and the reduction temperature has a significant effect on the content of rutile phase. When the reduction temperature does not exceed 1000 degrees C, the content of rutile increases with reduction temperature increasing. However, when the reduction temperature exceeds 1000 degrees C, rutile transforms into low-valent titanium oxide.

Southern Hunan is known to be one of the few iron manufacturing regions in the Han period. The study of iron implements from this region should yield important evidence concerning the regional iron-making techniques used and the local iron industry. We provide a detailed account of the technological aspects of iron implements yielded from Chenzhou, a major node on the traffic routes entering the broader southern frontiers. Our analysis focuses on the metallographic features and chemical compositions of inclusions in the examined objects. The results reveal that cast iron and related annealing or decarburization techniques were commonly used. Most implements were made using solid-state decarburization of cast iron, along with malleable cast iron and fined iron. This technological profile is similar to other case studies in the literature, but also highlights regional characteristics such as the relatively sparse presence of fined iron. Based on this observation, we discuss various factors that could have contributed to this situation. In a broader context, the analysis of this collection can contribute to the further investigation of the regional characteristics of the Han period iron industry.

Archaeological investigations recently conducted at the site of Tajiasi, a Middle Shang bronze casting workshop, have led to the discovery of abundant metallurgical micro-remains from various stages of bronze production processes. Lead isotope analysis of these samples has given fresh insights into the discussion about the origin of the metal sources employed during this period. The copper melting and refining slags, characterized by Pb-206/Pb-204 around 18.0 and very low lead concentrations (<4,000 ppm), provided the first reliable indicator about the geological origin of copper used in the Middle Shang period. It is suggested the Jiurui metallogenic district in the Middle Yangtze River, home to the Shang period copper smelting site of Tongling, was the copper source for the Taijiasi site. On the other hand, alloying slags and bronze objects bearing highly radiogenic lead (Pb-206/Pb-204 > 19.0) show an elevated, but still relatively low Pb content (<2 wt%), suggesting that the source of tin introduced Pb which was characterized by HRL. Items including alloying slags, dross, spillages and bronze objects have similar HRL characteristics to the Middle Shang bronzes from other sites. This result indicated the Taijiasi site was involved in a multi-line metal circulation during this period, and elucidated the complexity and multiplicity of supply networks for different kinds of metals in the Middle Shang period. It also highlighted the great potential of copper melting and refining slags for detecting the copper provenance.

刘家洼遗址位于陕西省渭南市澄城县王庄镇刘家洼村西.2016年底,部分墓葬被盗,后追缴文物400余件(组),包括鼎、簋、壶等青铜重器,表明此地应是春秋时期的一处高等级墓地.2017年以来,陕西省考古研究院等单位对刘家洼东Ⅰ区、东Ⅱ区与西区(鲁家河)墓地进行了抢救性发掘,清理了 3座大型高等级贵族墓葬及百余座中小型墓葬,确认刘家洼墓地应为春秋早中期芮国的一处重要墓地,并将刘家洼遗址认定为芮国后期的一处都邑[1].

中国古代金属冶铸体系的形成是外来因素和本土创造共同作用的结果,但关于中国冶金术起源"外来说"仍有争议. 长期以来,学界将冶金术、文字和城市作为文明形成的标志,因此冶金考古也成为中华文明探源工程的重要研究内容之一.经过20年的工作,我们关于冶金技术在中华文明形成和发展过程中的作用有了更加深入和系统的认识.表现在田野考古调查与发掘方面有新的发现与突破,检测分析方法与"大数据"时代背景下考古学解释方面有新的发展,多学科交叉的冶金考古研究模式更加得到重视.

Fiber optics reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) has recently been proved to be an effective tool for fast and in-situ detection of chlorine-bearing bronze corrosions and shed new light on the preservation strategy of ancient bronzes. However, classification of corrosions based on visual examination of spectral features is not satisfactory, especially when applying FORS to more complicated mixtures. In this research, we propose a novel approach that combines reflectance spectroscopy with machine learning methods to identify copper trihydroxychlorides. FORS data of 160 samples including mineral references and bronze corrosions from 9 different regions in China, were used to train algorithms. Their mineral composition was pre-determined via XRD and samples were accordingly classified into "with" and "without" copper trihydroxychlorides groups. Six supervised machine learning models trained in this research could all achieve optimal classification results. This research demonstrated that FORS combined with machine learning methods can perform a fast and accurate classification of bronze corrosions and may play an essential role in the future conservation of bronze artefacts.(c) 2022 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR). Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

叶家山晚商青铜器组多数器物上有族氏铭文,对研究商代晚期青铜器流通、商末周初青铜器矿料利用规律和西周早期青铜器"分器"制度具有重要价值.研究结果表明,这批器物有铸造和铸后受热两种组织形态;合金类型以铅锡青铜为主,另有少量锡青铜和铅青铜;这批器物使用的一部分铜料、铅料与曾国铜器和殷墟四期铜器相同,表明商代晚期开发使用的一部分矿料到西周早期还在继续使用中,而商晚期"锡料来源紧缺",但西周早期曾国铜器锡料供应充足,这些锡料是晚商已开采使用后来被周人掌控,还是周人新开发的,亦需深入研究.

This article presents a technological analysis of the bronze artifacts excavated from the Western Zhou Dynasty cemetery at Beiyao, Luoyang. The results show that the tin content in the Western Zhou bronze artifacts from the Beiyao cemetery is comparable to that of the bronze artifacts from the Yinxu Phase II, indicating that the Western Zhou nobles were able to control and use stable tin sources in the early Western Zhou period. The lead isotope ratios of the artifacts are mostly within the range of ordinary lead, and some overlap with the lead isotope ratios of some bronze artifacts from Yinxu, suggesting that some of the minerals exploited by the late Shang people were also exploited on a large scale in the early Western Zhou period. The study also shows that the circulation of metal minerals was a common and normalized social behavior during the Western Zhou period and was the most important logistical entity in social production at that time.

通过对出土于驻马店闰楼墓地13件绿松石制品物相结构、化学成分、铅锶同位素组分等的检测得出:驻马店闰楼出土绿松石制品主要成分为 Al2O3、P2O5和CuO,除此之外,还有微量的F2O3、SiO2、MgO、CaO、Na2O等元素.铅锶同位素组分表明,该墓地绿松石制品的矿源特征信号是多元的,已知的矿源有竹山喇嘛洞、洛南辣子崖和白河白龙洞地区,除此之外还应有其他矿源.

湖北随州叶家山墓地是西周早期曾国的高等级贵族墓地,葬制独特,布局清晰,保存完整,随葬器物种类多、数量大,备受学界关注[1].其中M28、M65和M111三座墓葬尤为重要,是有确切铭文印证的曾侯墓,而且M28和M65均出土带有"曾侯谏"铭文的铜器[2].M111所出青铜礼器中,有15件可见"曾侯"铭文,完全可以确定其墓主身份为一位曾侯;其中2件铜簋上发现有"曾侯犺作宝尊彝"铭文,另有1件铜方座簋上发现有"犺作烈考南公宝尊彝"铭文,可进一步推定M111墓主为"曾侯犺"[3].需要指出的是,在叶家山西周墓地发现后,有学者指出M111是墓地中年代最早的一位曾侯墓[4],但M111发掘简报将其年代推定在西周早期偏晚阶段,约当昭王时期.

孙家村遗址自西周中晚期出现铸铜活动,春秋早期后铸铜业繁荣,铸铜遗物中砷青铜及铅青铜减少,铅锡青铜稳定为基本合金类别.春秋中期铸铜活动减退,铸铜遗物及青铜器中的锡青铜尤其是高锡青铜明显增多.遗址利用的铅资源主要来自皖江铜陵等地,出土陶范掺入大量植物性材料,也与同时期皖江地区的陶范相似.通过铜、铅、砷金属物料的流通,皖江与宁镇地区吴文化在西周中晚期至春秋初年形成了冶金共同体,但伴随春秋中期锡资源的广泛流通及吴与中原的交往,长江下游铸铜技术及铸铜业格局明显变化.孙家村铸铜生产变迁与大港吴国遗址群的兴衰大致同步,是长江下游地区周代铸铜业的缩影,见证了吴越特色高锡合金技术的成型.