[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2026.1885296.].

Oat (Avena sativa L.) is a crop of significant economic and nutritional importance; however, its yield and quality can be substantially reduced by fungal diseases, including powdery mildew caused by Blumeria graminis f. sp. avenae (Bga). The aim of this study was to evaluate the phenotypic resistance of 110 genotypes of Lithuanian oat cultivars to powdery mildew using five pathogen isolates. Based on the results obtained, three genotypes with the highest level of resistance were selected. Among them, one cultivar—Delfin—carries the Pm7 resistance gene, as documented in the literature. The two remaining genotypes were subjected to detailed evaluation using 30 isolates for the purpose of resistance gene postulation, followed by molecular analysis employing STS (Sequence-Tagged Sites) and SCAR (Sequence Characterized Amplified Region) markers, aimed at identifying the presence of the Pm4, Pm5 and Pm7 genes, considered among the most desirable resistance genes against powdery mildew in oat. None of these genes were confirmed in the studied cultivars. The results obtained suggest that the observed resistance may be conferred by other as-yet-unidentified resistance genes. The studied genotypes may therefore represent a novel and valuable source of resistance to powdery mildew, useful in breeding programs aimed at improving disease resistance in oat.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a serious concern for wheat production worldwide. The current study was conducted to identify morpho-phenological traits that contribute to passive resistance against FHB. For this purpose, a set of 332 spring wheat genotypes from different origins was used. Eight morpho-phenological traits and FHB severity were evaluated using spray inoculation under field conditions in 2022 and 2023. A non-parametric test was performed to evaluate genotypic variation for all studied traits, revealing significant differences among genotypes across the two years. Correlation analysis demonstrated a strong negative association between FHB severity and phenological traits: days to heading (r = -0.43, p < 0.001), days to flowering (r = -0.39, p < 0.001) and a low to medium negative correlation between FHB resistance and spike length (r = -0.29, p < 0.001) and spikelets per spike (r = -0.26, p < 0.001) on average across two years. Furthermore, there was a significant negative but weak association between anther extrusion and FHB severity (r = -0.21, p < 0.001). Random forest regression analysis demonstrated that a complex of eight morpho-phenological traits predicted FHB severity with an accuracy of 65% in 2023 and 57% in cross-validation sets across two years. According to permutation importance analysis, days to flowering, heading, and anther extrusion had the highest contribution to FHB severity, and all three traits had a significant effect on FHB prediction.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most devastating wheat diseases worldwide. Wheat resistance to FHB is controlled by multiple small-effect genes involved in active and passive resistance mechanisms. Complex resistance can be successfully managed using genomic selection. However, the efficiency of wheat genomic selection for FHB is restricted by prediction accuracy. In this study, we investigated the contribution of passive resistance traits in genomic prediction to FHB. A panel of 335 spring wheat genotypes were phenotyped for FHB severity and eight key traits associated with passive resistance in 2022, 2023, and 2025. Genome-wide association analysis (GWAS) was performed to identify MTAs significantly associated with FHB resistance and passive resistance traits. Genomic prediction was performed using Reproducing Kernel Hilbert Space regression (RKHS), Ridge Regression Best Linear Unbiased Prediction (rrBLUP), and Random Forest regression (RF) models. The contribution of passive resistance was evaluated by performing genomic prediction on separate sets of SNPs that were significantly associated with FHB resistance and morpho-phenological traits in GWAS. Genomic prediction based on set 1 from cross-validated GWAS outperformed the prediction of the entire set of markers (18,417 SNPs) in all models. Comparing the genomic prediction performance on the entire set of markers with that based on set 1 from cross-validated GWAS and fixed covariates (days to heading and anther extrusion), an absolute increase in accuracy of 0.10 (0.60 vs. 0.70), and 0.10 (0.60 vs. 0.70) was observed using the RKHS, and rrBLUP models, respectively. In RF model, DH and AE were included as additional predictors and the increase was 0.11 (0.53 vs. 0.64). The results indicate that the genomic prediction of wheat resistance to FHB can be improved integrating passive resistance traits into prediction models.

Genetic improvement of wheat resistance to the devastating disease Fusarium head blight (FHB) is the most effective strategy to prevent economic, health, and food safety issues, and is also an environmentally friendly approach for disease control. However, wheat breeding for FHB resistance is hampered by complex resistance, which is controlled by multiple loci with minor effects and limited availability of resistance sources. Globally, sources of FHB resistance primarily stem from Asian wheat; however, excellent resistance has also been noted in European spring wheat cultivars and breeding lines. The success of breeding for the improvement of wheat resistance to FHB relies on the availability of a genetic pool that is adapted to local environments, possesses desirable agronomic traits, and includes a sufficient number of effective QTL for wheat resistance to FHB. A genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed using a panel of 332 spring wheat genotypes including 181 from Baltic, Nordic countries (65), Central and Western Europe (76) and exotic genotypes (10), employing a 25 K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array. The objectives of this study were to identify SNPs significantly associated with wheat resistance, determine QTL with approximate regions, and identify candidate genes within these QTL by exploring a panel of wheat genotypes adapted to the Baltic and Nordic countries. A total of 65 significant marker-trait associations (MTAs) with FHB resistance were identified using GWAS. Resistance loci were distributed across 15 wheat chromosomes and three genomes. Furthermore, 55 QTL were identified, 10 of which had phenotypic variation explained (R2) values above 10%. QFHB-2AL.1 and QFHB-2BL.1 were stably detected in 11 trials. An overall total of 52 candidate genes was identified by analyzing QTL regions in combination with published transcriptome data. This study demonstrated that a substantial number of QTL can be found in European spring wheat germplasm. Pyramiding of major effects along with small-effect QTL resulted in a positive additive effect on wheat resistance. Elite breeding lines with multiple resistance alleles were identified and could be used as valuable sources in wheat breeding for FHB resistance.

Spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) remains an important alternative to winter wheat cultivation at Northern latitudes due to high risk of overwintering or delayed sowing of winter wheat. We studied nine major agronomic traits in a set of 299 spring wheat genotypes in trials across 12-year-site combinations in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Norway for three consecutive years. The dataset analyzed here consisted of previously published phenotypic data collected in 2021 and 2022, supplemented with additional phenotypic data from the 2023 field season collected in this study. We combined these phenotypic datasets with previously published genotypic data generated using a 25K single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array that yielded 18,467 markers with a minor allele frequency above 0.05. Analysis of these datasets via genome-wide association study revealed 18 consistent quantitative trait loci (QTL) replicated in two or more trials that explained more than 5% of phenotypic variance for plant height, grain protein content, thousand kernel weight, or heading date. The most consistent markers across the tested environments were detected for plant height, thousand kernel weight, and days to heading in eight, five, and six trials, respectively. No beneficial effect of the semi-dwarfing alleles Rht-B1b and Rht-D1b on grain yield performance was observed across the 12 tested trials. Moreover, the cultivars carrying these alleles were low yielding in general. Based on principal component analysis, wheat genotypes developed in the Northern European region clustered separately from those developed at the southern latitudes, and markers associated with the clustering were identified. Important phenotypic traits, such as grain yield, days to heading, grain protein content, and thousand kernel weight were associated with this clustering of the genotype sets. Interestingly, despite being adapted to the Nordic environment, genotypes in the Northern set demonstrated lower grain yield performance across all tested environments. The results indicate that spring wheat germplasm harbors valuable QTL/alleles, and the identified trait-marker associations might be useful in improving Nordic–Baltic spring wheat germplasm under global warming conditions.

Fusarium head blight is a devastating wheat disease that causes yield reduction and mycotoxins contamination, leading to multiple negative consequences for the economy, health, and food safety. Despite the tremendous efforts that have been undertaken over the last several decades to harness the disease, the problem remains a challenging issue. Due to global warming, its impact has become increasingly severe in Baltic and Nordic countries. The improvement of wheat resistance is hampered by complicated genetic inheritance, the scarcity of adapted resistant breeding materials, and difficulties in obtaining accurate and reproducible data due to the high interaction and dependency of the disease development on the environment. In this study, the resistance of 335 genotypes, 9 of which were of exotic origin and the remainder of which were adapted to the environments of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, or Norway, was studied in 8 trials using spray and point inoculation with spore suspensions and grain spawn inoculation under field and/or greenhouse conditions. The best linear unbiased estimates (BLUEs) of each genotype within the individual trials and the adjusted means across the trials were determined to reduce the environmental effects. Genotypes that exhibited excellent Type I or Type II resistance and overall resistance were identified.

Key message QPm.NOBAL-3A is an important QTL providing robust adult plant powdery mildew resistance in Nordic and Baltic spring wheat, aiding sustainable crop protection and breeding. Abstract Powdery mildew, caused by the biotrophic fungal pathogen Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici , poses a significant threat to bread wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.), one of the world’s most crucial cereal crops. Enhancing cultivar resistance against this devastating disease requires a comprehensive understanding of the genetic basis of powdery mildew resistance. In this study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using extensive field trial data from multiple environments across Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Norway. The study involved a diverse panel of recent wheat cultivars and breeding lines sourced from the Baltic region and Norway. We identified a major quantitative trait locus (QTL) on chromosome 3A, designated as QPm.NOBAL-3A , which consistently conferred high resistance to powdery mildew across various environments and countries. Furthermore, the consistency of the QTL haplotype effect was validated using an independent Norwegian spring wheat panel. Subsequent greenhouse seedling inoculations with 15 representative powdery mildew isolates on a subset of the GWAS panel indicated that this QTL provides adult plant resistance and is likely of race non-specific nature. Moreover, we developed and validated KASP markers for QPm.NOBAL-3A tailored for use in breeding. These findings provide a critical foundation for marker-assisted selection in breeding programs aimed at pyramiding resistance QTL/genes to achieve durable and broad-spectrum resistance against powdery mildew.

Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) has become the most widely grown cereal crop in the Nordic-Baltic region, however, due to climate change its yields are under increasing risk. Here we present results of international effort harnessing available wheat germplasm in the region for identification of tools and genotypes for breeding wheat varieties with improved yield stability. We formed a panel comprising 300 spring wheat genotypes from Nordic-Baltic region and studied their phenotypic diversity across different environments to identify genotypes with high potential for adaptation to changing climate. Field experiments were carried out in 2021 and 2022 in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Norway. The performance and stability of yield (GY), protein content (PC), thousand kernel weight (TKW), test weight (TW), length of growing period (GP), and nine other traits – were studied. Drought and excessive rainfall occurred in the Baltic countries in 2021–2022, whereas weather was more stable in Norway. High variability for most, and significant GxE effect for all the studied traits was identified. We found out genotypes combining yield and quality with stability using the AMMI model-based Weighted Average of Absolute Scores index (WAASB). Finally, we selected nineteen superior genotypes that combined high yield with high values of important quality traits. Thus, combining broad Nordic-Baltic wheat germplasm with extensive field phenotyping, we identified promising breeding material to develop climate ready spring wheat varieties for the region.

Accurate and robust methods are needed to monitor crop growth and predict grain yield and quality in breeding programs, particularly under variable agrometeorological conditions. Field experiments were conducted during two successive cropping seasons (2021, 2022) at four trial locations (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway). The focus was on assessment of the grain yield (GY), grain protein content (GPC), and UAV-derived NDVI measured at different plant growth stages. The performance and stability of 16 selected spring wheat genotypes were assessed under two N application rates (75, 150 kg N ha−1) and across different agrometeorological conditions. Quantitative relationships between agronomic traits and UAV-derived variables were determined. None of the traits exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) genotype-by-nitrogen interaction. High-yielding and high-protein genotypes were detected with a high WAASB stability, specifically under high and low N rates. This study highlights the significant effect of an NDVI analysis at GS55 and GS75 as key linear predictors, especially concerning spring wheat GYs. However, the effectiveness of these indices depends on the specific growing conditions in different, geospatially distant locations, limiting their universal utility.

Accurate and robust methods are needed to monitor crop growth and predict grain yield and quality in breeding programs under variable agrometeorological conditions. Field experiments were conducted during two successive cropping seasons (2021, 2022) at four trial locations (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway). The focus was on assessment of grain yield (GY), grain protein content (GPC), and UAV-derived NDVI measured at different plant growth stages. Performance and stability of 16 selected spring wheat genotypes were assessed under two N application rates (75, 150 kg N ha−1) and over contrasted agrometeorological conditions were assessed, and the quantitative relationships between agronomic traits and UAV-derived variables were figured out. None of the traits were subject to a significant (p<0.05) genotype by nitrogen interaction. High-yielding and high-protein genotypes were detected with high WAASB stability, specifically under high and low N rates. This study highlights the significant effect of NDVI analysis on growth stages GS55 and GS75 as key linear predictors, especially in the context of spring wheat GY. However, the effect of these indices depends on the specific growing conditions in the respective locations, thus limiting their universal utility.

Despite significant efforts in recent decades to combat Fusarium head blight (FHB), this disease remains one of the most important and widely studied diseases of wheat and other cereal plants. To date, studies have focused on small grain cereals as hostplants for these pathogens, but it was recently discovered that asymptomatic non-gramineous plants and weeds can serve as alternative sources of fungi associated with FHB. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pathogenicity of Fusarium avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum and F. sporotrichioides isolated from non-gramineous plants and weed species to spring wheat under greenhouse conditions. A total of 91 Fusarium isolates, including 45 from weeds and 46 from non-gramineous plants were floret inoculated at mid anthesis. The FHB incidence and severity (%) of inoculated heads and the area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) were calculated. To determine yield losses, the weight of 1000 grains (TGW) was evaluated. Results of the research showed that FHB severity (%) values in Fusarium spp.-inoculated heads from non-gramineous plants varied from 9.3% to 69.6% and AUDPC values ranged from 161.5% to 1044.6%. TGW was most significantly reduced by the F. culmorum isolates BN26r and BN39fl from Brassica napus and isolates BV15.1l and BV142.1pe from Beta vulgaris (37%, 30%, 28.8% and 31.8% respectively, compared to the water control). In Fusarium-inoculated heads from weeds, FHB severity values ranged from 6.2% to 81.0% and AUDPC values varied from 134.2% to 1206.6%. TGW was most significantly decreased by CBP1401r isolate from Capsella bursa-pastoris (52%). The study results suggest that the pathogenicity of Fusarium species isolated from different hosts to wheat more strongly depends on the Fusarium species and strain than the hostplant. Under greenhouse conditions, F. culmorum strain groups obtained from weeds, non-gramineous plants and Triticum were more pathogenic to wheat than the water control and other Fusarium species.

Waxy starch with a modified amylose-to-amylopectin ratio is desired for a range of applications in food and non-food industries; however, yield performance and grain quality characteristics of waxy wheat cultivars are usually inferior in comparison to advanced non-waxy cultivars. In this study, we compared waxy ('Eldija', 'Sarta') and non-waxy ('Skagen', 'Suleva DS') winter wheat cultivars grown under high and low-input farming systems over two cropping seasons by evaluating their yield and grain quality, including flour, dough, and starch physicochemical properties. The yield of waxy cv. 'Sarta' was significantly lower compared to the non-waxy cultivars across all trials; however, waxy cv. 'Eldija' had a similar yield as non-waxy cultivars (except under high-input conditions cv. 'Skagen'). Moreover, no significant differences were observed between protein and gluten content of waxy and non-waxy cultivars. Low amylose content typical for waxy wheat cultivars highly correlated (r ≥ 0.8) with lower falling number, flour yield and sedimentation values, lower nitrogen % used for grain, higher flour water absorption and flour particle size index. In general, properties dependent on starch structure demonstrated consistent and significant differences between both starch types. The prevailing heat waves during the grain filling period decreased grain test weight but increased protein and gluten content and caused gluten to be weaker. Dough development time at these conditions became longer, dough softening lowered and starch content decreased, but A-starch, starch peak and final viscosity values increased. Low-input farming had a negative effect on grain yield, grain nitrogen uptake and grain test weight but increased phosphorus content in grain. The unique dough mixing properties of waxy cultivar 'Eldija' suggest that it could be used in mixtures along with non-waxy wheat for dough quality improvement.

In this work, we studied the impact of harvesting time on Fusarium mycotoxin occurrence in spring wheat and the effect of mycotoxin contamination on the quality of these grains. The spring wheat grains (Triticum aestivum L.) were collected in 2016–2018 when the crop had reached full maturity, 10 ± 2 days and 17 ± 3 days after full maturity. The grain samples were analyzed for Fusarium infection and co-contamination with mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), and T-2 toxin (T-2), as well as the quality of the wheat grains (mass per hectolitre, contents of protein, starch, ash and fat, particle size index (PSI), falling number, sedimentation, wet gluten content, and gluten index). The occurrence of Fusarium spp. fungi and the mycotoxins produced by them in the grains was mostly influenced by the harvesting time and meteorological conditions. The correlations between Fusarium species and the mycotoxins produced by them in the grains of spring wheat showed F. graminearum to be a dominant species, and as a result, higher concentrations of DON and ZEA were determined. The co-occurrence of all the three mycotoxins analyzed (deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin) was identified in wheat. In rainy years, a delay in harvesting resulted in diminished grain quality of spring wheat, as indicated by grain mass per hectolitre and falling number. Negative correlations were found in highly contaminated grains between mycotoxins (DON, ZEA, and T-2) and falling number and grain mass per hectolitre values.

Two new waxy winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars, Eldija and Sarta, were developed at the Institute of Agriculture, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry and released in Lithuania in 2021.The cultivars were developed using waxy wheat material from Nebraska, the United States of America.The mean yield of Eldija and Sarta at five locations over three testing years was 7.56 and 7.21 t/ha or 79.63 and 75.95%, respectively, compared to the yield of the standard cultivars.Eldija and Sarta should be grown under high input conditions due to the relatively low resistance to leaf spot diseases and Fusarium head blight and medium tolerance to lodging.An amylose content of 0.68% and 0.36% of Eldija and Sarta, respectively, a very low falling number (about 60 s), a lower flour yield and higher water absorption compared to common wheat and the reaction to iodine staining (brown colour) characterised the new cultivars as fully waxy wheats.These cultivars are intended for the potential demand from commercial companies for special use in the food industry.

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), which provides about 20% of daily calorie intake, is the most widely cultivated crop in the world, in terms of total area devoted to its cultivation. Therefore, even small increases in wheat yield can translate into large gains. Reducing the gap between actual and potential grain yield in wheat is a crucial task to feed the increasing world population. Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by the pathogenic fungus Fusarium graminearum and related Fusarium species is one of the most devastating wheat diseases throughout the world. This disease reduces not only the yield but also the quality by contaminating the grain with mycotoxins harmful for humans, animals and the environment. In recent years, remarkable achievements attained in “omics” technologies have not only provided new insights into understanding of processes involved in pathogenesis but also helped develop effective new tools for practical plant breeding. Sequencing of the genomes of various wheat pathogens, including F. graminearum, as well as those of bread and durum wheat and their wild relatives, together with advances made in transcriptomics and bioinformatics, has allowed the identification of candidate pathogen effectors and corresponding host resistance (R) and susceptibility (S) genes. However, so far, FHB effectors and wheat susceptibility genes/factors have been poorly studied. In this paper, we first briefly highlighted recent examples of improving resistance against pathogens via new techniques in different host species. We then propose effective strategies towards developing wheat cultivars with improved resistance to FHB. We hope that the article will spur discussions and interest among researchers about novel approaches with great potential for improving wheat against FHB.

A study was carried out at Institute of Agriculture, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry. A total of 37 oat (Avena sativa L.) genotypes, which had been registered, grown or selected in Lithuania over the period 1934-2013 were analysed. Precision field trials were conducted. Conventional technology for oat cultivation was employed. The relationship between oat genotypes and year of registration, growth and selection was calculated. The greatest progress of oat genotypes registered, grown or selected in Lithuania was in the increase of yield (R = 0.73), hectolitre weight (R = 0.53), and plant height decrease (R = -0.57); the highest decrease was found in protein content (R = -0.55). The new cultivars tended to show a higher thousand grain weight, better resistance to lodging, higher starch and lower fat content, lower resistance to crown rust.

For the present study, samples of cleistothecia were collected in Central Lithuania and Southern Ukraine. To characterize the virulence, complexity and diversity of powdery mildew (Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici) populations, 80 isolates were derived from single ascospores, 40 isolates from each population. Pathotype analysis was conducted on 16 differentials with known Pm genes. According to the proposed nomenclature, 32 pathotypes were identified in the Lithuanian powdery mildew population and 30 - in the Ukrainian population. The most frequent phenotype in Lithuania was NGDE (7.5%), and in Ukraine it was NGKE (15%). The Ukrainian powdery mildew population was more complex and contained more virulence genes per isolate. The virulence test was carried out by inoculation on detached leaves of 26 common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) differentials with known Pm genes and 12 resistant winter wheat breeding lines and cultivars. The frequencies of virulence to these differentials ranged from 0% to 100%, and most of them had high level of virulence. No virulence was found to Pm20 and Pm25 +3a genes, cultivar `Lastivka odeska' and breeding lines CN 89/16 and PI 170911 in both populations, whereas the frequencies of virulence were more than 50% to Pm1a, Pm2, Pm3h, Pm3g, Pm4a, Pm5a, Pm6, Pm7, Pm8, Pm9, Pm10 and Pm 34 genes. The effectiveness of 25 Pm genes/alleles was estimated at the seedling and adult plant stages. Most of the genes were found to be ineffective. Genes Pm20, Pm25 +3a and resistance of winter wheat cultivars 'Vykhovanka odeska', 'Kniahynia Olha' and 'Lastivka odeska' were highly effective both at the seedling and adult plant stages.

The Baltic Sea is one of the largest brackish water bodies in the world. Eutrophication is a major concern in the Baltic Sea due to the leakage of nutrients to the sea with agriculture being the primary source. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is the most widely grown crop in the countries surrounding the Baltic Sea and thus promoting sustainable agriculture practices for wheat cultivation will have a major impact on reducing pollution in the Baltic Sea. This approach requires identifying and addressing key challenges for sustainable wheat production in the region. Implementing new technologies for climate-friendly breeding and digital farming across all surrounding countries should promote sustainable intensification of agriculture in the region. In this review, we highlight major challenges for wheat cultivation in the Baltic Sea region and discuss various solutions integrating transnational collaboration for pre-breeding and technology sharing to accelerate development of low input wheat cultivars with improved host plant resistance to pathogen and enhanced adaptability to the changing climate.

Traditionally, the oat crop (Avena sativa) has been neglected in a number of respects, cultivated in cropping areas not optimal for wheat, barley or maize. In recent years the interest in oats has increased, particularly because of its dietary benefits and therapeutic potential for human health. The uniqueness and advantages of naked oats over other popular cereals, due to its potentially valuable nutritional composition, have been well studied and reported, opening new market niches for oats. Despite the well-documented benefits, the status of the oat crop is still fragile, due to many reasons. The area cultivated for the oat crop is much less compared with other cereals, and therefore commercial efforts in oat breeding are less. Oat groat yield is lower than other cereals such as wheat and the nutritious uniqueness has not been reflected in agreeable market prices. The same price still exists for both naked and conventional/covered oats in the world grain market. The absence of visible market competitiveness, and some of the oat biological drawbacks, including low grain yield, keeps the oat crop as a lower profitability minor crop. This review is intended to analyse and summarise main achievements and challenges in oat genetics, agronomy and phytopathology to find possible ways of oat improvement and future perspectives for oat breeding.