Human faces are critical for social communication, enabling individuals to make rapid judgments about traits like trustworthiness and competence. Previous research suggests that face masks can enhance perceptions of trustworthiness and, to a lesser extent, competence, although findings on competence are more variable and context-dependent. Additionally, age-related facial cues influence social judgments, with older and younger faces being evaluated differently. This research examined the impact of face masks on perceptions of trustworthiness and competence across two age groups: young adults (Study 1) and old adults (Study 2). Study 1 revealed that face masks increased perceptions of trustworthiness and competence for young faces. In contrast, Study 2 found no significant effects of face masks on trustworthiness or competence for older faces, suggesting that age-related facial features and stereotypes may overshadow mask-induced perceptual biases. Altogether, the findings indicate that the impact of face masks on social perceptions, particularly trustworthiness and competence, may not generalize reliably across different age groups.

There is abundant research on the nature and content of mind wandering (MW) in neurotypical individuals, yet little research in these areas on individuals high in autistic traits. The current study explored the relationship between autistic traits and several aspects of MW: themes, intentionality, temporal dimensions, and attitudes towards MW. A total of 1,477 participants completed measures of autistic traits, MW, and stress. Autistic trait level was positively correlated with the MW theme of guilt and fear of failure (GFF), spontaneous MW (MW-S), poor attentional control (PAC), and stress, and negatively correlated with appreciation for MW's benefits. Participants were then divided into two groups based on their autistic trait level. Those scoring six and above on the AQ-10 were placed in the "high" group, and those scoring five and below in the "low" group. Significant group differences emerged for GFF, MW-S, PAC, stress, and appreciation of MW. These results add to a small but growing body of research exploring the internal experiences of individuals high in autistic traits and how their MW patterns may relate to common challenges associated with autism. However, because all participants were neurotypical university students, the findings may not generalize to Autistic individuals or to more diverse samples. Taken together, these results suggest that MW content and frequency offer insight into challenges with sustained attention, daily stress, and anxious thought patterns. Future research should explore whether encouraging the benefits of MW (i.e., creativity, planning, and mood regulation) could support skill development and emotional well-being in individuals high in autistic traits.

Construal-level theory (CLT) proposes that psychological distance influences the level of abstraction at which something is mentally construed: Things perceived as less probable (likelihood) or further away from the here (spatial distance), now (temporal distance), or self (social distance) are thought about more abstractly. In this international multilab study, we tested four basic hypotheses derived from core assumptions of CLT and explore potential moderators and boundary conditions of the effects. Participants ( N = 11,775) from 27 countries and regions were randomly assigned to one of four experimental protocols focused on different types of psychological distance (temporal, spatial, social, or likelihood), and each experiment manipulated psychological distance (close vs. distant). The protocols for temporal distance ( n = 2,941) and spatial distance ( n = 2,973) were direct replications of Liberman and Trope (Study 1) and Fujita et al. (Study 1), respectively. The remaining two protocols were paradigmatic replications, applying to social distance ( n = 2,926) and likelihood ( n = 2,936). The effects of psychological distance on construal level for the four present studies were as follows (positive effects are consistent with hypotheses): temporal, d = 0.08, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.003, 0.16] (effect in original study: d = 0.92); spatial, d = 0.04, 95% CI = [−0.03, 0.11] (effect in original study: d = 0.55); social, d = −0.27, 95% CI = [−0.34, −0.19]; and likelihood, d = 0.03, 95% CI = [−0.05, 0.11]. Pretests indicated that valence and abstraction were confounded in response options on the outcome measure. Controlling for this confound eliminated the hypothesis-inconsistent effect of social distance, d = 0.006, 95% CI = [−0.05, 0.07]. These findings provide limited evidence for the predictions of the theory and present a critical challenge for CLT.

Recent developments in large language models (LLMs), have renewed calls to study how people perceive minds in these AI applications. Across 4 experiments that differed in the type of exposure (vignettes or real-time interaction), we found that exposure to LLMs (i.e., Chat GPT, LLaMA, Claude) can increase attributions of mind for both agency (ability to do) and experience (ability to feel). These effects varied as a function of exposure type, with vignettes producing larger effects than real-time interactions, perhaps because users tended to ask fact-based questions during real-time interactions. We also found that individuals who interacted with LLMs more before the experiments, and individuals with a general propensity to anthropomorphize, perceived more mind in LLMs. These findings suggest that as LLMs grow in popularity, and people are exposed to them to a greater extent, the degree to which people attribute qualities of mind to AI systems will also increase depending on the type of exposure. These results pose an intriguing question for future research regarding how long-term exposure or other nuances in the type of exposure to LLMs may influence mind perception.

Mind wandering (MW) research has largely focused on samples assumed to be neurotypical, with little attention to how autistic traits might shape MW experiences. The current study used a trait-based approach to examine how autistic traits relate to MW frequency, motivation, interest, intentionality, and memory performance during a reading task. Sixty-six participants (48 females, 18 males) from a large North American university read two non-fiction chapters (one chapter on fossils, one on the troposphere) under separate probe-caught (PC) and self-caught (SC) conditions. While reading, participants reported MW episodes and indicated whether each was intentional or unintentional. Following each chapter, participants completed a memory task and rated their motivation and interest. Autistic traits were measured using the 10-item Autism quotient (AQ-10); autism diagnosis was not assessed. Across participants, higher momentary interest in the reading material was associated with reduced MW and better memory performance. AQ-10 score was positively correlated with interest in fossils. The interaction between AQ-10 score and reporting method approached significance, suggesting a possible tendency for the difference in MW reports between SC and PC conditions to increase with autistic trait level, however, this effect was inconclusive. Taken together, these findings add to the limited research on MW in individuals high in autistic traits and suggest that autistic traits may have limited affect on performance or how often MW occurs, but may play a role in how MW is reported across sampling methods. Further research is needed to determine if this pattern reflects differences in attentional monitoring or MW episode characteristics, and whether these findings generalize to people with a confirmed autism diagnosis.

Attention is not a singular cognitive process, but a collection of distinct yet interactive mechanisms that evolve across the lifespan. Using data from the Combined Attention Systems Test, we examine how different attention networks-alerting, orienting, and executive control-develop uniquely as we age and interact in ways that shape cognitive performance. First, we demonstrate that these networks change in dissociable ways with age, challenging the notion of a uniform attentional decline, revealing instead that different networks follow distinct trajectories. Second, we provide evidence that spatial orienting (both exogenous and endogenous) modulates executive control, reducing cognitive conflict in flanker tasks. Third, we highlight the importance of measurement assumptions in aging research, showing that executive control appears to decline when measured by reaction time alone, but remains stable or even improves when accuracy is considered. These findings underscore the need to disentangle cohort-related strategic differences (e.g., older adults favouring accuracy over speed) from intrinsic neurocognitive aging effects (e.g., general slowing and network desynchronization). By integrating theoretical perspectives with empirical data, this work advances our understanding of attention as a dynamic, multicomponent system that adapts over the lifespan. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Facial expressions play a crucial role in social communication, influencing judgments of trustworthiness and competence. While previous research has examined how face masks affect trust and competence in general populations, little is known about their impact on individuals with high autistic traits, who often rely more on the mouth region for social cue interpretation. The present study investigates the effects of face masks on perceptions of trustworthiness and competence as a function of high and low autistic traits. Results show that masked faces are generally perceived as more trustworthy and competent than unmasked faces. The effect of mask wearing on trustworthiness and competence ratings was not affected by autistic traits, suggesting that participants, regardless of their level of autistic traits, adjusted their judgements using available facial cues.

While the movement of one's eyes to extract information from the visual environment often occurs without conscious reflection, this may not be true when one's eyes are also a signal of information to others, such as in a social interaction. Metacognitive monitoring of one's ability to balance the use of gaze to both receive and send information has not been empirically tested. The present study investigated this issue by eye-tracking participants during a novel hide-and-seek paradigm. Hiders selected boxes on a computer display with the goal of cooperating with or deceiving a future seeker. Displays were either homogeneous or contained a visually conspicuous box. Hiders were either aware or unaware that their gaze would be revealed to future seekers. Hiders reported their confidence in their hiding success after every trial. To assess hider performance, a new group of participants ("seekers") were tasked with identifying the hiders' box selections after seeing an animation of hiders' fixations toward displays. The results indicate that hiders' confidence effectively predicted seeker accuracy, with this metacognitive ability being strongest when hiders both intentionally and cooperatively signaled with their eyes and when a visually conspicuous box aided communication. These findings highlight the capacity to monitor the use of one's gaze for both gathering and signaling information and reveal that this ability varies with both the environmental context and the form of communication. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Perceiving and recognizing faces are vital components for social interactions among humans. Extensive prior research has shown that facial sexual dimorphism, a nonverbal social signal, contributes to perceived facial attractiveness for neurotypical individuals. However, there has been no research investigating if that might also be true for high autistic trait individuals. The current study investigates the facial qualities that high autistic trait individuals find attractive in others. In Study 1, faces with altered levels of sexual dimorphism were presented for five seconds, and the gaze behaviour of high and low autistic trait participants was recorded while they rated the attractiveness of the images. In Study 2, participants were given unlimited viewing time to rate face attractiveness. In Study 1, high trait individuals made fewer fixations to the eye region compared to low individuals, but both groups reported similar facial femininity/masculinity preferences. In Study 2, results showed that preference for masculinity in both male and female faces increased as autistic traits increased, indicating a positive association between autistic traits and masculinity preference. A similar trend was observed when comparing individuals with high versus low autistic traits, but this group difference did not reach statistical significance. The current exploratory research is the first to investigate potential links between what facial characteristics contribute to attractiveness in high trait individuals. The findings of this investigation suggest that individuals with higher levels of autistic traits may show a greater preference for masculine features in both male and female faces. Notably, when participants were given unlimited viewing time, distinctions in perceived facial attractiveness emerged as a function of autistic traits, including a significant interaction between autistic trait level and the sex of the face.

Contrapposto, an asymmetrical twisting of the hips and shoulders, has historically been associated with beauty and aesthetics in art. While the impact of a female contrapposto posture on perception of attractiveness and visual attention has been studied, its effects on males remain understudied. The current research aims to explore whether contrapposto postures in men influence perceptions of attractiveness, dominance, masculinity, dynamism, and naturalness, as well as visual attention. Two eye-tracking studies were conducted, utilizing images of male models in contrapposto and upright poses. Despite differences in attributions, no significant differences were found in visual attention between the two poses in both initial fixation and prolonged gaze behaviors. Contrapposto was consistently perceived as less dominant, masculine, and natural. These findings suggest a feminizing effect of contrapposto on male body posture, aligning with previous research on female contrapposto. The current research provides insights into the historical and artistic significance of contrapposto while contributing to the understanding of nonverbal communication through body posture.

When people watch a pre-recorded conversation, they tend to follow the speaker and spend most of the time looking at the faces and eyes of those talking. To test whether these responses reflect realistic social attention, we eye-tracked participants in two experiments where the depicted speakers sometimes wore sunglasses which removed fine-grained information from the eye region. We also examined clinically relevant traits which have been shown to have an effect on social attention, by including individuals with high- and low- levels of traits associated with autism (Experiment 1) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; Experiment 2). Those with high levels of autistic traits were less likely to look at key facial features. ADHD symptoms did not have the same effect. When there was a change in speaker, sunglasses disrupted attention such that there were fewer and later looks to the new speaker. Being able to read gaze cues, therefore, facilitates attention in conversation, and subtle differences in this behaviour may be associated with clinically relevant traits.

The evaluation of AI-generated art has seen increased interest after widespread access to AI-generated art (e.g., DALL-E or Stable Diffusion). While previous studies have suggested that there are preferences for human-generated art, the research remains far from robust with numerous contradictory findings. One potential reason for this discrepancy is differing experimental designs employing comparative or non-comparative methods. To shed light on this problem, two experiments were conducted: one using a Likert scale (N = 250) and another using a 2-alternative forced choice design (N = 102). Our conflicting results between the two designs suggest that traditional Likert-based art appraisals in non-comparative formats may not be sensitive enough to reliably detect preferences that a forced-choice task can reveal. While AI-generated art continues to become more mainstream, people tend to prefer human art in terms of their liking and valuation appraisals when measured in comparative designs that better approximate real-world interaction with art.

This research explored whether the conservativeness of religious veiling among Muslim women acts as a costly signal of trustworthiness and in-group commitment. Across three studies, we examined how different levels of veiling—from liberal to conservative attire—affect perceptions within Muslim communities and between Muslim and Christian participants. In Study 1, with Muslim participants using a between-subjects design, women in official attire were perceived as more trustworthy than those in liberal clothing, with no significant differences between conservative and liberal attire regarding trustworthiness. Study 2 employed a within-subjects design, finding that women in official clothing were rated higher in trustworthiness compared to those in liberal and conservative attire. Study 3 included both Muslim and Christian participants and directly assessed in-group commitment alongside trustworthiness. Muslim participants rated women in conservative and official clothing as more trustworthy and committed to the in-group than those in liberal attire, while Christian participants did not differentiate based on the level of conservativeness of veiling. Overall, the findings provide partial support for veiling as a signal within Muslim communities. Results suggest that official attire—rather than conservative veiling—enhances perceptions of trustworthiness, likely due to its appropriateness in professional contexts.

Previous research has shown that people have a preferred distance during their in-person interactions. However, it is less clear what the appropriate distance is for online interactions. The present study aimed to extend previous research by exploring whether comfort distance is different between dyadic interactions when taking place in a virtual online context compared with a virtual in-person context. The study involved 44 undergraduate students who participated in a virtual reality (VR) experiment, consisting of two conditions (an online and an in-person dyadic interaction). The participants were asked to adjust the distance between themselves and a virtual confederate displayed on a television screen (virtual online condition) and a virtual confederate displayed in-person (virtual in-person condition). The results showed that individuals select a larger distance from avatars for online interactions than for in-person interactions, prefer more distance between themselves and the screen than the distance between avatars and the screen, and opt for greater distance from male than from female confederates. These findings provide a deeper understanding of the dynamics of online social interactions and highlight the importance of context and perspective when studying proxemics.

This 45-minute study, composed of 27 participants (20 female, 7 male) from the University of British Columbia (mean age 21.5 years), systematically examined how posture -- sitting in a stationary chair, standing, or swiveling in a chair -- affects visual exploration of immersive virtual environments. Using 360° panoramic scenes, we analysed eye, head, and torso movements to assess the spatial extent and coordination of visual behavior. Standing posture enabled the greatest movement range and scene coverage, while fixed sitting constrained exploration, resulting in compensatory eye-in-head activity. The swivel condition closely approximated standing, suggesting that rotational freedom, not upright posture alone, drives naturalistic gaze behavior. Analyses confirmed that posture significantly shapes horizontal movement distribution, especially for head and torso. Eyes led head and torso movements, revealing a dynamic, nested coordination pattern. These findings, based on the unique integration of high-precision oculomotor data with a systematic comparison of different postures, extend prior work and emphasise posture's critical role in shaping embodied vision in virtual reality. Beyond research design implications, our results inform VR-based physical therapy and immersive skill training, highlighting the need to consider physical movement affordances in immersive contexts.

Covert visual attention is often seen as a lab phenomenon. Yet, in real-life, people routinely shift their attention to others without moving their eyes, a fact overlooked in most research. To truly understand natural behaviour, we must look beyond the eyes and illuminate this dark matter of social attention.

Research in face perception has predominantly utilized two-dimensional images, which does not fully capture the complexities of human perception as it operates in real-world settings. Previous studies have demonstrated that 3D objects elicit different neural and behavioral responses compared to their 2D counterparts, suggesting a more profound engagement with and processing of real-world objects and environments. Grounded in the understanding that human visual perception has evolved in three-dimensional environments, this research addressed a notable gap in the literature on facial perception. This study investigates the impact of presentation modality (2D vs. 3D) on the perception of facial attractiveness, dominance, and masculinity using virtual reality (VR) technology. Results showed that 3D faces were perceived as slightly more attractive and masculine than 2D faces. Dominance ratings, however, appeared unaffected by dimensionality. Given the small effect sizes, our results should be interpreted viewed cautiously, and further research is needed to clarify the influence of dimensionality on social trait perception.

Important social information can be extracted from the eyes and gaze of others, such as intentions, states of mind, and the locus of attention. Research investigating people's ability to interpret social signals has largely focused on the featural properties of the stimuli (e.g., where or how someone looks) and not on the social intent behind those eye movements. To explore this gap, participants were shown eye movement recordings of individuals ("hiders") selecting hiding locations on a 3 × 3 computer grid. One group of participants was told that these eye movements were from a foe who did not want participants to discover their hiding location (Group Foe). A second group was told that the eye movements were from a friend who wanted participants to discover their hiding location (Group Friend). In fact, both groups saw deceptive (foe) and cooperative (friend) eye movements. When the intent of the hider aligned with participants' beliefs about that hider-for instance, the hider was acting for a friend and the participants believed the hider was friendly-participants were more likely to correctly select hiders' locations. Further, participants' belief of the hider's intent had a greater impact on interpretation than featural differences in deceptive and cooperative eye movements. The present study reveals that beliefs about someone's gaze can play a greater role in performance outcomes than any actual changes in the gaze itself. It provides a rigorous and novel paradigm to investigate the complex interaction between the intent of social signals and how those signals are interpreted.

Neurotypicals mind wander between 20% and 50% of their waking hours, during which they engage in mental tasks such as problem-solving, planning, mulling current concerns, and self-reflection. Despite extensive literature dedicated to mind wandering (MW) in neurotypicals, very little is known about what Autistic individuals or those high in autistic traits might think about while MW. Also unclear is whether they are predisposed to thinking in visual rather than verbal form. To investigate the effects of autistic traits on MW, we asked 92 participants to sit in a quiet room for five minutes with their eyes closed. Following the resting period, participants completed the 10-item Autism quotient (AQ-10) and the Amsterdam Resting-State Questionnaire (ARSQ), which measures 10 factors of MW. The ARSQ factor Theory of Mind (ToM-A) was modestly and negatively correlated with AQ-10 score, driven by fewer reports of thinking about others. Notably, neither correlational nor group-level analyses provided evidence that autistic traits were linked with placing oneself in others' shoes or Visual Thought. For both high and low AQ-10 scorers, Bayesian analyses indicated extreme evidence for a positive correlation between thinking about others and Visual Thought, and moderate evidence for a positive correlation between thinking about others and thinking about the self. These exploratory findings contribute to the limited literature on MW content in individuals high in autistic traits and provide directions for future research with larger, more diverse samples.

The built environments we move through are a filter for the stimuli we experience. If we are in a darker or a lighter room or space, a neutrally valenced sound could be perceived as more unpleasant or more pleasant. Past research suggests a role for the layout and lighting of a space in impacting how stimuli are rated, especially on bipolar valence scales. However, we do not know how affective experiences and descriptions of everyday auditory stimuli are impacted by built environments. In this study, we examine whether listening to a series of ambiguously valenced sounds in an older, darker building leads these sounds to be rated as less pleasant—and described using more negatively valenced language—compared to listening to these sounds in a newer building with more natural light. In a between-subjects design, undergraduate participants at an older building or a newer building (nOld = 46, nNew = 46; nFemale = 71, nMale = 18, MAge = 21.18, RangeAge = 17-38) listened to ten sounds that had previously been rated as ambiguous in valence, then rated these sounds on a bipolar valence scale before being asked to describe, in writing, how they felt about each sound. Participants rated sounds as being more pleasant at the New site compared to the Old site, but the sentiment of their descriptions only differed between sites when controlling for collinearity. However, bipolar scale ratings and description sentiment were highly correlated. Our findings suggest a role for the features of built environments in impacting how we appraise the valence of everyday sounds.