Background Masters Swimming is a rapidly expanding sector of competitive aquatic sport and provides structured opportunities for adults to maintain long-term engagement in high-level swimming. Despite extensive global participation, limited evidence exists regarding the national origins of the most frequent Masters swimmers among the top-ten performers across all strokes, distances, and age groups. Previous research has focused primarily on isolated disciplines or open-water events. This study aimed to investigate participation and performance patterns of Masters swimmers competing at the World Masters and World Aquatics Championships from 1986 to 2024, with a specific focus on national patterns among top performers. Methods A total of 204,005 long-course (50 m) swimming performance entries (94,312 women and 109,693 men) from 1986 to 2024 were extracted from the official World Aquatics archive and analyzed. The unit of analysis was the annual top-ten entries for each stroke, distance, sex, and age group, with each result treated as an independent performance record. Statistical differences between nationalities were assessed using Kruskal-Wallis tests with Bonferroni post-hoc adjustments. Descriptive data were presented using mean, standard deviation, and confidence intervals. Success was operationally defined as the frequency of a nation’s appearances in the annual top-ten fastest times for each stroke, distance, and sex. For descriptive purposes, nationalities were grouped into six categories: the top-five nationalities with the most appearances in the top-ten fastest times regarding the different swimming strokes and sex separately by distances and for each competition year, as well as one group of all other nationalities. Results Among women, German swimmers were the most numerous in the top-ten for breaststroke, butterfly, and 50 m backstroke. Among men, however, U.S. swimmers were the most frequently represented across almost all distances and strokes, except for the successes of Brazilian athletes in the 50 m backstroke and Russian swimmers in the 50 m breaststroke. Across all years and disciplines, the most recurrent top-ten Masters swimmers came from the USA, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and Brazil (“Big Six”). Performance differences between nationalities were significant across multiple events, with notable strengths among Russian swimmers in breaststroke and freestyle sprint events. Conclusions The United States demonstrated the broadest and most consistent numerical superiority in Masters swimming performance over the 38-year period, by fielding the most frequent athletes among the top-ten performers, particularly among men. German women displayed exceptional success in breaststroke and butterfly, accounting for the majority of the athletes in the top-ten. These findings highlight persistent geographic patterns in Masters swimming excellence and may guide future research on environmental, sociocultural, training, and demographic factors contributing to national performance patterns.

This narrative review examines the influence of helmet use on safety, comfort, cognition, and batting performance during cricket match play, with a view to proposing recommendations for design evolution and policy revision. The review involved an extensive exploration of leading databases, including Medline, SPORTDiscus, PubMed, and Scopus, covering the period from their inception to 30 December 2024. Findings confirm that helmets reduce head and facial injuries by attenuating impact forces, though visual obstruction and heat stress persist due to restricted airflow and faceguard design. Cognitive impacts vary: short-term use produces minimal effects on reaction time, whereas prolonged use may impair vigilance. Research on cardiovascular responses and repeated-sprint ability remains limited. The review concludes that helmets enhance safety but require better ventilation, fit, and adjustable faceguard gaps to balance protection and performance. Further studies on helmets' physiological and cognitive effects are needed to make cricket batting safer.

Direct in-water rescue is a safety-critical task in which towing technique and rescue-support equipment may influence both rescuer workload and task output. This study compared physical workload, towing performance and physiological economy across four mannequin towing techniques: Extended Arm Tow, Double Armpit Tow, "Sailor" Technique Tow and Rescue Tube Tow. Eighteen male water lifeguards (age 18.8 ± 1.3 years; V˙O2max 56.1 ± 5.0 mL·kg-1·min-1) completed randomized 50-m towing trials after an incremental swimming test to determine maximal oxygen uptake. Towing velocity, gas-exchange variables, heart rate, peripheral oxygen saturation, perceived exertion, oxygen cost per meter and body-mass-normalized oxygen cost per meter were assessed. Rescue Tube Tow produced the highest mean towing velocity and the lowest body-mass-normalized oxygen cost per meter, indicating the most favourable workload-performance profile. Double Armpit Tow elicited the lowest time-based cardiorespiratory strain but did not optimize transport efficiency. Oxygen cost per meter may support ergonomic evaluation of workload-performance efficiency in rescue tasks.

BACKGROUND:Ice hockey is characterized by repeated short-duration, high-intensity efforts interspersed with brief recovery periods, requiring a complex interaction of aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The aim of this study was to determine the energetic structure of repeated high-intensity on-ice sprint exercise in ice hockey players by quantifying the relative contributions of the oxidative, glycolytic and ATP-PCr energy systems. METHODS:14 male semi-professional ice hockey players performed the 30-15IIT followed by the Repeated High-Intensity Effort (RHIE) on-ice. Oxygen uptake was measured breath-by-breath, blood lactate concentration and energy system contributions were estimated using a three-component PCr-La-O2 model. RESULTS:The RHIE on-ice was characterized by a dominant aerobic contribution (63.1 ± 2.6%), followed by phosphagen metabolism (29.8 ± 2.9%), with a relatively small glycolytic contribution (7.4 ± 1.5%). CONCLUSIONS:No significant relationships were observed between maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and the RHIE performance parameters, energy system contributions or lactate responses, except for a moderate relationship between absolute VO2max and absolute aerobic work. In contrast, parameters determined at the anaerobic threshold showed more consistent relationships with absolute metabolic work. These findings indicate that repeated high-intensity on-ice performance in ice hockey is largely independent of VO2max and is more closely related to individual energetic profiles and metabolic tolerance.

Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) has been proposed as an acute strategy to improve explosive performance, yet its effects on sprint-swimming performance remain unclear, particularly when individualized recovery timing is considered. This study examined the acute effects of a lower-limb PAPE protocol, applied using an individually determined recovery time (IRT), on 50 m front crawl performance and selected start-, race-, and turn-related kinematic variables in national-level male swimmers. Fourteen male national-level swimmers completed a randomized repeated-measures cross-over design comprising control (CON) and PAPE conditions. In the PAPE condition, swimmers performed a lower-limb conditioning protocol consisting of loaded lunge-position squats on a Keiser Squat machine, followed by a maximal 50 m front crawl trial at the end of the IRT. In the CON condition, swimmers completed the same swimming trial without the conditioning stimulus. Lower-limb power output increased significantly after the conditioning activity and reached its highest mean value at 6 min post-exercise (F4,52 = 97.14, p < 0.001). However, the PAPE protocol did not significantly improve overall 50 m performance (25.508 ± 0.856 s vs. 25.529 ± 0.773 s; mean difference = - 0.021 s, 95% CI: -0.148 to 0.107; p = 0.731) or most start-related variables. The only significant effect was observed for turn time, which was lower in the PAPE condition than in CON (7.707 ± 0.251 s vs. 7.771 ± 0.261 s; mean difference = - 0.064 s, 95% CI: -0.126 to - 0.001; p = 0.046). Responder analysis revealed substantial inter-individual variability across outcomes. In conclusion, a lower-limb PAPE protocol applied using the IRT did not improve overall 50 m front crawl performance in national-level male swimmers, although it produced a small improvement in turn time. These findings suggest that the effects of lower-limb PAPE in sprint swimming may be segment-specific rather than global, and that practical implementation should be individualized rather than applied uniformly across swimmers.

Post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) has been proposed as an acute strategy to improve sprint performance, yet evidence in swimming remains inconsistent, particularly for upper-limb protocols and segment-specific race outcomes. This study examined the acute effects of an individually timed upper-limb PAPE procedure on 50 m front crawl performance and selected race-kinematic variables in national-level male swimmers. Fifteen swimmers completed a randomized repeated-measures cross-over design comprising a control condition (CON) and an upper-limb PAPE condition. The PAPE procedure consisted of 3 sets of 6 repetitions of a prone butterfly-style double-arm pull exercise at 70% 1RM on a Keiser Functional Trainer, followed by a maximal 50 m front crawl trial performed after each swimmer's individually determined recovery time. The primary outcome was 50 m race time (T50), while start-, split-, turn-, and lap-specific stroke variables were analyzed as secondary exploratory outcomes. Compared with CON, the PAPE condition resulted in significantly faster T50 (25.44 ± 0.80 vs. 25.70 ± 0.78 s; Δ = -0.260 s, - 1.01%; p < 0.001) and T50 excluding reaction time (p < 0.001). Significant improvements were also observed for T15, T20, dive distance, flight time, turn time, and second-length stroke rate, whereas lap-specific swimming velocity, stroke length, and stroke index remained unchanged. These findings suggest that an individually timed upper-limb PAPE procedure may improve 50 m front crawl performance in national-level male swimmers, with effects expressed mainly through selected race segments rather than a uniform enhancement of free-swimming efficiency.

The aim of the study was to determine correlations between performance of vertical jumps and dolphin kick sprints, and between the results of a dry-land butterfly arm pull test and butterfly arms-only swimming. The study recruited competitive junior male swimmers (15.9 (0.7) years, 179.3 (5.3) cm body height, 64.6 (4.3) kg body mass). On dry land, we measured jump height, lower-limb work and power, as well as peak velocity, power, and force in the butterfly arm pull test. In swimming tests, time, velocity, power, force, and work were assessed during the dolphin kick and butterfly arms-only trials. Pearson’s correlation coefficients and the coefficients of determination were calculated between measurements. The findings showed correlations between swimming velocity and power recorded during the dolphin kick test with jump height, work and power measured in the jump tests (maximum r = 0.90, r2 = 0,81, p < 0.05). The best correlations between the results of the jump tests and swim variables were determined for the CJ30s test. The butterfly arm pull test was not associated with all parameters measured by the butterfly arms-only test. Our study demonstrates that targeted dry-land training programmes using exercises like vertical jumps can enhance competitive swimmers’ performance and offer coaches an accessible means of tracking athlete progress. Moreover, such simple drills may serve as a cost-effective approach for early evaluation of strength and power potential and for preventing musculoskeletal injuries, all without requiring pool access or specialized underwater equipment. However, the small and homogeneous sample (n = 12, junior males only) and the absence of reliability analyses limit the generalizability of the results.

The MMA fight consists of 5 rounds of 5 min with minimal breaks between the rounds. The exertion load is excessive for the fighters, and the 1-minute breaks give little time for any intervention. This study aimed to examine the acute effects of two methods of regenerative strategies, ice massage and dry massage, and analyze their impact on Reactive Strength Index (RSI - m s− 1), muscles’ biomechanical properties: muscle tone (T-Hz), elasticity (E - arb- relative arbitrary unit), stiffness (S - N/m), pressure pain threshold, (PPT - N/cm²), and compare their influence with passive rest. The maximum number of jumps (J - n) treated as an indirect effective measure of the interventions that were conducted was also recorded for each participant in each regenerative strategy. Thirty male MMA fighters took part in the study. Three subgroups of 10 participants (Ice massage, n = 10; dry massage, n = 10; and control, n = 10) were enrolled in the cross-over randomized clinical trial study design. The groups were randomized, and each group underwent each procedure (30 tested in each procedure). Five sets of jumps on a 50 cm box to exhaustion were used as a fatigue protocol with 1-minute breaks. The recovery interventions were performed during the breaks. The statistically significant results revealed in the post-exercise tests: RSI and number of jumps - the lowest decrease was observed in the massage group (p < 0.001 and p < 0.0001 respectively), the minor increases in T, E and S were also observed in the massage group ((p < 0.0001 for all measurements); the post-exercise PPT was the highest (higher means better) in the Ice group (p < 0.001). In every other parameter, the ice massage group showed slightly worse results than the dry massage group. Responder analysis confirms that the number of jumps profoundly impacted biomechanical variables, leading to increased muscle stiffness and tension, decreased elasticity and force endurance, and heightened pain sensitivity. Obtained results confirm that both dry and ice massage can significantly affect acute recovery following rounds of combat sport-related exertions. The Ice and Massage interventions differed in effectiveness - Massage was the most effective in preventing increases in stiffness and tension and preserving muscle elasticity. At the same time, ice cooling had a lesser impact, particularly on muscle elasticity changes but higher for PPT.

BACKGROUND:In sports science, freestyle swimming has been thoroughly studied for particular performance-related factors. Nonetheless, it is unknown what countries the top freestyle swimmers are from, especially not for age group swimmers. In addition, the existing research on the performance of master freestyle swimmers has yet to confirm that male swimmers achieve faster times than their female counterparts across all age groups and distances. The current study looked into the nationalities and sexes of the top freestyle swimmers in each age group in World Aquatics competitions for the 50m, 100m, 200m, 400m, and 800m events from 1986 to 2024. METHODS:The data (derived from (www.worldaquatics.com/masters/archives/masters-archives) were presented using mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values, and/or confidence intervals. The year of competition, age, age group, stroke, distance, and first and last names of each swimmer were noted. The nations were then divided into six groups: one group comprising all other countries and the top five nations with the greatest number of appearances in the top 10 fastest freestyle swimming times by distance each year. RESULTS:In freestyle swimming, most swimmers (30.6%) competed in the 50m event (n = 25,094, 10,909 female and 14,185 male), followed by the 100m event (25.6%, n = 20,961, 8,796 female and 12,165 male), the 200m event (17.4%, n = 14,309, 6,729 female and 7,580 male), the 400m event (13.4%, n = 10,956, 5,363 female and 5,593 male), and the 800m event (12.6%, n = 10,317, 5,179 female and 5,138 male). The results from the generalized linear models indicate that sex, age group, and the interaction between sex and age group all had significant effects on the 50m, 100m, 200m, 400m, and 800m races. Specifically, for the 50m races, the effect of sex was significant (x2 (1) = 3451.941, p < 0.001), as was the effect of age group (χ2 (13) = 19,295.169, p < 0.001), and the interaction between sex and age group (χ 2 (13) = 654.671, p < 0.001). CONCLUSION:The USA demonstrates quantitative dominance by contributing the greatest number of top 10 performers. Additionally, the study highlights significant sex-based performance differences, with males generally outperforming females in all age categories. This study comprehensively analyzes the performance trends observed in freestyle master swimming for nearly four decades.

Purpose Specific performance-related aspects of the breaststroke have been thoroughly investigated in sports science. However, the nationalities of the fastest master breaststroke swimmers are unknown. The present study investigated the nationalities of the fastest master breaststroke swimmers. Methods For all World Masters Championships held between 1986 and 2024, the year of competition, first name, last name, age, age group, stroke, and distance were recorded for each swimmer. Descriptive data were presented using mean, standard deviation, maximum, minimum, and/or confidence intervals. The top 10 race times for each sex were identified, with the nationalities sorted into six categories. The data were then grouped into the top five nationalities with the most appearances in the breaststroke swimming top 10 by distance each year and all other nationalities. The Kruskal–Wallis H test compared nationality differences, followed by Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons to identify specific distinctions. Results Between 1986 and 2024, most swimmers (40.7%) competed in the 50 m event (n = 17575; 7911 women and 9664 men), followed by the 100 m (35.2%, n = 15211; 7158 women and 8053 men), and the 200 m events (24.0%, n = 10373; 4934 women and 5439 men). Germany had the most women swimmers in the top 10 yearly, whereas the country with the highest number of men swimmers in the top 10 per year was the United States of America (USA). Germany, Great Britain, the USA, and Italy were the most frequent nationalities among the top 10 countries across all women’s breaststroke distances. For men, the USA, Russia, Germany, and Italy were among the top 10 countries in all men’s breaststroke distances. In general, performance differences were observed among various countries across all breaststroke distances for both men and women, with certain countries consistently outperforming others in specific events. Germany tended to have better performances for women, while Russia excelled in the men’s events. Conclusions In summary, differences exist in swimming distance and athlete origin of the fastest master breaststroke swimmers. Germany, Great Britain, the USA, and Italy were the most frequent nationalities among the top 10 countries annually in all women’s breaststroke distances. For men, the USA, Russia, Germany, and Italy were among the top 10 countries in all men’s breaststroke distances.

PURPOSE:Aim was to investigate relationship of gender and training experience with post-occlusive hyperemia (PORH) and answer how differences between men and women and their training status led to differences in vascular responses after occlusions. METHODS:This prospective experimental study included 80 healthy volunteers divided into four groups of 20: trained men, trained women, non-training women, and non-training men. The occlusion intervention on the dominant thigh was performed. The laser Doppler flowmetry was used to assess post-occlusion responses by measuring: arterial occlusion pressure-AOPmin[mmHg], total arterial occlusion pressure-AOP100%[mmHg], resting flow-RF[PU], time to peak-TP[s], recovery time-TR[min], and biological zero-BZ[PU]. RESULTS:Men recovered faster than women in trained and untrained groups and showed higher AOPmin, and AOP100% compared to women in both trained and untrained groups. Women had higher RF comparing to men in both trained and untrained groups, and higher BZ but only in the untrained group. Trained people had higher RF, AOPmin and recovered faster to baseline, but had lower TP than non-trained. Trained men had higher AOP100% than untrained men; in women, it was non-significant. There were no significant differences between genders in TP in both trained and untrained subgroups, and in BZ in trained subgroups. CONCLUSIONS:There are significant differences between trained and untrained men and women in microcirculatory parameters after occlusion intervention. Between gender differences were noted only in some parameters which underscores the need of further research.

Backstroke has been thoroughly investigated in the context of sports science. However, we have no knowledge about the nationalities of the fastest age group backstroke swimmers. Therefore, the present study intended to investigate the nationalities of the fastest backstroke swimmers. For all World Masters Championships held between 1986 and 2024, the year of competition, the first and last name, the age, and the age group, and both the stroke and the distance were recorded for each swimmer. Descriptive data were presented using mean, standard deviation, maximum and minimum values, and confidence intervals. The top ten race times for each swimming distance and sex were identified for descriptive purposes. Nationalities were then grouped into six categories: the top five nationalities with the most appearances in the backstroke swimming top ten times by distance each year and one group consisting of all other nationalities. The Kruskal-Wallis test compared nationality differences, followed by Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons to identify specific distinctions. Between 1986 and 2024, most age group backstroke swimmers (39.6%) competed in the 50 m event (11,964, 6206 women, and 5,758 men), followed by the 100 m event (32.3%, n = 9764, 5157 women, and 4607 men), and the 200 m event (28.1%, n = 8483, 4511 women, and 3,972 men). Germany had the highest number of top ten female swimmers in the 50 m backstroke distance. Brazil had the highest number of top ten male swimmers in the same distance. The USA had the highest number of female and male swimmers among the top ten in the 100 m and 200 m backstroke distances. Germany and Great Britain were the only countries with swimmers in the top ten for all female backstroke distances. Brazil, the USA, Italy, and Germany were the countries that had swimmers in the top ten for all male backstroke distances. In summary, the fastest backstroke age group swimmers originated from Germany, Brazil, USA, Great Britain, and Italy, where differences between the sexes and race distances exist.

Background. The main purpose of this research was to establish selected motor skills measured in off-ice and on-ice conditions in ice hockey players using the functional movement screen test, vertical jumps, and on-ice sprints. Material and Methods. The present study measured fifty-four (n=54) elite-level ice hockey players, competing in the top-level league in Poland (Polish Ice Hockey League, PHL) during the 2019/2020 season. Tests were divided into off-ice and on-ice protocols. The off-ice tests consisted of body composition measurements (including body weight, muscle mass, % of body fat), functional movement screening (FMS), measurements of jump height and power of the lower limbs, including countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), and drop jump (DJ). On-ice tests were divided into skating sprint testing measured in splits (0-10m, 10-30m), and total sprint between 0-30m. Furthermore, the maximal skating sprint was also measured between blue lines (15m). Results were correlated between FMS tests, vertical jump tests, and on-ice skating tests. The relationships between the variables were quantified using Pearson’s product-moment correlation. The aim of this study was to highlight off-ice protocols, which can best predict on-ice parameters. Fitness profiling involved division into forwards and defenders and the calculations were also performed for a whole group of hockey players. Results. The study showed a strong correlation between total points scored in FMS with the vertical jumps and skating sprints, especially in the defender group in CMJ jump height r = 0.69 (p < 0.001) and 30m skating sprint r = 0.7 (p < 0.001). Conclusions. The study found positive correlations between FMS tests and off-ice and on-ice parameters, showing that the FMS test could be used to predict ice skating performance.

The purpose of the study is to investigate the biokinematic characteristics of the triple jump technique in qualified athletes. Material and methods. The technique of the final attempts of qualified triple jumpers during the 2023 World Athletics Championships was analyzed. The following methods were used in the work: analysis and synthesis of scientific and methodological literature, analysis of video materials, methods of mathematical statistics. The video of the final attempts was used, provided for public use by the International Athletics Federation (World Athletics). The attempts were recorded by four video cameras installed on the side of the treadmill at a distance of 2,5 m, the height of the video camera mounted on a tripod was 1,5 m. Two of the four video cameras recorded video at a frequency of 25 frames per second, the other two video cameras recorded video at a frequency of 1300 frames per second. Video analysis of the final attempts and processing of biokinematic parameters of the technique were determined using the Dartfish and Kinovea programs. All statistical data were processed in the statistical analysis program IBM SPSS Statistics version 28.0.1.0. Results. The metric, time, angular, and speed characteristics of the take-off technique are determined; push-off; jump; step; jump for highly skilled triple jumpers. Based on the analysis of the triple jump technique indicators, the optimal biokinematic parameters of the technique that athletes need to have in order to achieve high competitive results were obtained. Conclusions. To achieve high competitive results in the triple jump, the following technical parameters must be used. The take-off speed should reach 10.40 m s-1 or more, the length of the last take-off step should be 2,20-2,40 m; the pace of the last step is 4-5 steps/s. The push-off; from the bar should last 0.100-0.133 s; the push-off; angle reaches 65-70 ̊; the speed of departure of the general center of mass of the body is 9.60 m s-1 and more. The jump should last no more than 0,660 s. During the jump, the high height of the overall center of body mass should be 1.30-1.45 m; upon landing, the speed of the general center of mass of the body is 9,20 m s-1 or more. The second push-off should last 0,160-0,180 s, the push-off angle is 60-65°. The take-off speed of the general center of body mass in a step should be 8,80 m s-1 or more. The optimal step duration is 0.450-0.520 s, step length is 5.20-5.50 m, the maximum height of the overall center of body mass is 1.24-1.30 m; upon landing, the speed of the general center of mass of the body is 8.50 m s-1 or more. The third push-off should last 130-166 s. The push-off angle is 63-70°. The take-off speed of the general center of mass of the body in a jump is from 8 m s-1 and more. The optimal duration of the jump is 0.750-0.780 s; maximum height of the overall center of body mass 1,10-1,22 m; upon landing, the speed of the general center of mass of the body is 7 m s-1 or more. When taking off and landing, the angle in the supporting leg throughout all three jumps should be 163-170 ̊.

ObjectiveThe primary aim of this study was to compare the immediate effect of contrast compression therapy with the use of Game Ready (GRT) on hyperaemic reactions in the upper limb on the application and contralateral sides, specifically in the context of mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes.DesignIn this experimental, single-blind, randomized crossover study, we recruited 30 male volunteers training in MMA (mean age: 28.33 ± 3.79 years, BMI: 25.25 ± 3.06, training experience: 9.93 ± 3.83). They were randomly assigned to the experimental (n = 15) or control (sham) group (n = 15). The experimental group underwent a 10-minute Game Ready Therapy (GRT) session, while the control group GRS underwent a sham therapy session. After a 2-week break, a cross-over change of therapy in the groups was performed, ensuring a comprehensive evaluation of the contrast compression therapy’s perfusion effects in 30 participants. Main outcome measures: Hyperemic reaction was measured: rest flow (RF - [non-referent unit]); therapeutic flow (TF- [min]), i.e., the average flow recorded during GR or sham therapy: time of recovery (TR - [min]), i.e., the time for perfusion to return to the resting value after the intervention. Measurements were performed on the ipsilateral and contralateral sides.ResultsThe mean perfusion during therapy was significantly higher in GRT compared to GRS (24.70 ± 1.45 vs. 12.60 ± 1.37; p < 0.001; ES = 5.7 [large]; △ = 12.10 > MDC). The time from cessation of contrast therapy to the return of blood flow to resting values showed significantly higher values in GRT compared to GRS (3.07 ± 0.45 vs. 16.80 ± 0.91; p < 0.001; ES = 16.27 [large]). No statistically significant difference was noted between the mean resting perfusion value (RF) and the mean perfusion value during therapy (TF) in the contralateral limb (7.74 ± 0.89 vs. 7.66 ± 0.89; p = 0.284; ES = 0.20 [negligible]; △ = 0.09 < MDC.ConclusionThis study suggests that compression contrast therapy on the ipsilateral side positively affects the intensification of the hyperaemic reaction. However, no statistically significant hyperaemic responses were observed on the contralateral side.

The most common causes of drowning are the attitudes and behavior of people swimming, drinking alcohol, not following the rules of safe bathing, disregarding regulations, regulations, prohibitions and orders, as well as low level of swimming skills, insufficient risk assessment skills and thoughtlessness.The research material included legal acts in the field of safety in water areas, drowning statistics, subject literature and publications on the Internet about investments in the functioning of water sports in Poland, and the method was the reading of official documents (acts, regulations, orders), subject literature in the field of rescue water and analysis of investments in swimming and bathing facilities.

Background: Cold and heat therapies for recovery in sports are commonly used, including in the mixed martial arts (MMA). The Game Ready (GR) device can be used for local monotherapy with either heat or cold and for contrast therapy. This study aimed to compare the effects of duration of cold and heat compression on biomechanical changes in the forearm muscles of 20 healthy mixed martial arts athletes. Material/Methods: Twenty MMA volunteers (26.5 +/- 4.5 years old) underwent 3 different phases of the GR: (1) stimulation time 10 min (eGR-10, GR experimental group), (2) 10 min (cGR-10, sham control group) and (3) 20 min (eGR-20, GR experimental group). The following outcomes were assessed: muscle tone (T), stiffness (S), flexibility (E), pressure pain threshold (PPT), microvascular response (PU), and maximum isometric strength (Fmax). All measurements were performed before GR (rest) and after GR stimulation (post).0 Results: Both eGR-10 and eGR-20 significantly improved outcomes T (p<0.001), S (p<0.001), E (p=0.001, and p<0.001, respectively), PPT (p<0.001), PU (p<0.001), and Fmax (p<0.001). Notably, eGR-20 exhibited superior improvements in PU, Fmax, and PPT, with larger effect sizes (p<0.001). While eGR-10 demonstrated more pronounced reductions in T and S (p<0.001), these results underscore the potential for tailored GR therapy durations to optimize specific recovery goals for MMA athletes. Conclusions: GR stimulation affects muscle biomechanical changes, pain threshold, muscle strength, and tissue perfusion. The study results suggest that 10 min of GR stimulation is sufficient to achieve changes that can be used to optimize recovery for MMA athletes.

Introduction: the objective of this study was to assess the impact of physique on the stride pattern and performance of elite male 400-m hurdles runners. Materials and Methods: this study is based on the analysis of the performance of 297 male 400-m hurdlers in 13 Olympic games, 16 world championships, and 15 European championships. The hurdlers were divided into 4 groups, based on their height and body mass index (BMI) – taller and heavier (TH), taller and lighter (TL), shorter and heavier (SH), and shorter and lighter (SL). Times taken to complete various phases of the 400-m hurdles race – H0-1 (from starting line to hurdle 1), H1-3 (from hurdle 1 to hurdle 3), H3-5, H6-8, H8-10, and H10-F (from hurdle 10 to the finishing line) – were noted. Similarly, the number of strides to complete 3 inter-hurdle phases (H1-4, H4-7, and H7-10) was recorded. Results: The technical index (TI = time for 400m hurdles run – time for 400m flat run) was the lowest in TH, followed by TL, SL, and SH. The stride number increased from H1-4 to H7-10. Taller hurdlers took fewer strides than shorter ones. Only 8.5% of the hurdlers followed a uniform stride number (13 or 15). Conclusions: the physique of elite 400-m men hurdlers can vary widely. Taller hurdlers fly over hurdles more efficiently; a uniform stride pattern is independent of height and BMI, and is followed by a few hurdlers only, and physique has a significant impact on running performance at a few phases of the 400-m hurdles run.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of dry needling (DN) intervention on the responses of muscle tone, stiffness, and elasticity, as well as power, pressure pain thresholds, and blood perfusion of the flexor carpi radialis muscle in mixed martial arts (MMA) athletes. Thirty-two trained/developmental men MMA fighters (25.5 +/- 4.5 years; 24.5 +/- 3 body mass index) participated in a randomized crossover study. Participants underwent a single intervention, receiving both DN and placebo. Laser Doppler flowmetry measured blood perfusion, while a myotonometer assessed the mechanical characteristics of muscle tone, stiffness, and elasticity of the flexor carpi radialis muscle. Pressure pain thresholds (PPT) were measured using an algometer, and maximal forearm muscle force was measured using a hand dynamometer. Outcomes were assessed at baseline, immediately after, and 24 hours and 48 hours post-intervention. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant Intervention*Time interaction for all outcomes: perfusion unit (p<0.001), muscle tone ( p <0.001), stiffness ( p <0.001), elasticity ( p <0.001), PPT ( p <0.001) and maximal forearm muscle force ( p <0.001). The current study suggests that a single session of DN enhances muscle recovery, increases muscle strength, and improved PPT in MMA athletes. These positive adaptations appear to last up to 48 hours in some variables.

The study aimed to evaluate the immediate effects of a dry needling (DN) therapy session on biomechanical properties, muscle power, perfusion, and pressure pain threshold of the gastrocnemius muscle with latent trigger points. Twenty mixed martial arts athletes (MMA) were randomly divided into two groups: experimental (eDN, n = 10) and sham (qDN, n = 10) to undergo one session of DN either with a real or a qazi needle. The measurements were taken at rest, 1-5 minutes after the DN (Post15min) and 24h after the DN (Post24h). DN significantly increased the muscle perfusion (Post1-5min and Post24h, p < 0.001), reduced its tone (Post1-5min and Post24h,p < 0.001) and stiffness (Post1-5min, p < 0.05; Post24 h, p < 0.001), and improved its elasticity (Post1-5min and Post24h, p < 0.001). DN also caused a significant increase in pressure pain threshold (Post1-5min, p < 0.001; Post24h,p < 0.05) and in muscle power (Post24h,p < 0.01). The DN session increased the blood perfusion and improved the biomechanical properties of the gastrocnemius muscle, which led to improved muscle power. The DN also had an analgesic effect. These effects were maintained at 24 h, which suggests that DN could facilitate muscle recovery in a post-exercise period of MMA athletes.