Brassicaceae cover crops are widely adopted in agroecosystems, yet their legacy effects on arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) remain context-dependent and mechanistically unresolved. In this study, we assessed how a standing white mustard (Sinapis alba L.) cover crop interacts with tillage intensity to influence AMF colonization, community composition, diversity, and abundance in volunteer barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) roots. AMF responses were quantified using complementary approaches, including microscopic assessment of root colonization, 18S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, and taxon-specific real-time PCR (qPCR). Roots were sampled before white mustard termination, thereby avoiding tissue disruption and isothiocyanate release, to distinguish host-mediated filtering from biofumigation-associated chemical disturbance. Colonization intensity was primarily determined by tillage, with significantly higher colonization under no-tillage compared to conventional tillage. Community-level responses, however, were dependent on taxonomic resolution. At the amplicon sequence variant (ASV) level, white mustard reduced AMF richness, whereas diversity and evenness were unaffected. At the genus level, richness remained stable, but diversity and evenness declined under the combined effects of cover cropping and conventional tillage, indicating that tillage modulated the impact of cover crop legacy. Dominant Glomeraceae lineages remained stable across treatments, and total AMF abundance showed no consistent response to management, although Rhizophagus irregularis was more abundant under no-tillage. Colonization intensity correlated with ASV richness rather than with individual taxa, suggesting that early symbiotic dynamics were linked to community diversity rather than to the dominance of specific lineages. These findings suggest that white mustard cover cropping, despite its well‑recognized agronomic benefits, may also carry context‑dependent shifts in AMF communities, highlighting a potential ecological trade‑off that should be considered when designing cover crop–tillage management combinations.

In organic farming, different bioproducts such as plant extracts and compost (obtained from recycling organic waste/residues) can promote the mineral fortification of vegetables. This study evaluated the agronomic performance and nutritional effects of an on-farm compost and a liquid extract derived from basil residues on organic tomato crop over two cropping cycles (2022–2023), within a fennel – tomato crop sequence, in Mediterranean environment. The tested treatments were on-farm compost applied alone (OC) or with basil extract spraying to crops (OCex), compared to a commercial organic vegetal fertilizer (ORG-V), an unfertilized control (NF), and NF with the extract (NFex). In 2022, treatments of OCex showed fruit weights higher by 36

Microbes play an active role in soil functions, but their potential as indicators for assessing soil health is still not fully recognised. This study investigated the abundance of microbial functional genes involved in the early steps of soil organic matter degradation, and how different soil management practices affected their relationship with soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil aggregate stability parameters. Two long-term experimental sites, managed using different soil practices (tillage and no-tillage, with or without cover crops), were considered: an organic apricot orchard in Italy and an arable site in Lithuania growing winter oilseed rape. The results showed that the fungal endoxylanase gene was sensitive to soil treatments at the orchard site, exhibiting a positive correlation with soil aggregate stability. The bacterial (3-glucosidase gene was negatively affected by soil tillage in the arable site, while this effect was buffered by organic amendments in the orchard site. The cellulase gene was resilient to soil management within sites, but sensitive to differences in substrate input between the sites. Stability to soil perturbations was observed for the endoglucanase gene. Overall, these findings highlighted genes related to soil parameters (endoxylanase and cellulase) and genes responsive to soil treatments in a site-specific manner (endoxylanase and (3-glucosidase), thereby improving our understanding of the relationship between microbial functions and soil properties.

Intensive land use leads to the degradation of agroecosystems, resulting in long-term losses in agricultural productivity. In contrast, sustainable management is known to improve soil fertility directly and indirectly through changes in the soil microbiota, which plays a fundamental role in agroecosystems by influencing nutrient biogeochemical processes and through symbiotic relationships with crops. In this study, we used amplicon sequencing to investigate changes occurring in dominant and rare sub-communities of bacteria and fungi in agricultural soils from seven European countries under different number of agroecological cropping systems: one and two sustainability-promoting practices or none. Both sub-communities were structured along a latitude gradient, reflecting bioclimatic differences across Europe, especially the fungal communities. Differences in the bacterial and fungal sub-communities’ structure were greater under the 2SP treatment than under 1SP, particularly within the fungal dominant sub-community, which changed by sustainability-promoting practices across more sites. In both fungal and bacterial communities, we identified specific taxa associated with carbon and nutrient cycling, pathogen suppression, or plant growth promotion.

Decision support tools (DSTs) are crucial in aiding agricultural decision-making, particularly in improving soil health by enhancing nutrient management, soil organic matter (SOM) and water retention. Despite the availability of numerous DSTs in Europe, their adoption, effectiveness and development needs are not well understood, as most research is based on literature reviews rather than direct feedback from stakeholders. This study aims at filling this gap by conducting an expert survey of the most widely used digital DSTs across Europe on SOM, water retention and nutrient use efficiency in agriculture. We aimed at evaluating the current use, limitations and development needs of DSTs and offering recommendations to improve the effectiveness and adoption of DSTs in the context of soil health. A questionnaire was distributed to experts in 24 countries. Answers were received from 18 countries, including 14 European Union (EU) nations, Norway, the UK, Switzerland and Turkey. A total of 115 DSTs were identified aligning with our definition of DST, with agronomists, consultants and farmers being the primary users. Adoption of DSTs was rated moderate (score: 3.1/5), with tools featuring user-friendly interfaces and alignment with farmer goals achieving higher adoption rates. DSTs were rated better suited to achieve farm-level goals (score: 4.1/5) than regional (score: 3.6/5) or national objectives (score: 3.5/5). Major barriers to adoption included limited end-user involvement in DST development, which may hinder alignment with practical needs. Considering all the received questionnaires, the most frequently cited areas for improvement were nutrient use efficiency (45%), SOM (24%) and water retention (18%). Respondents emphasised the need for better integration of new farming systems (e.g., organic farming, agroforestry), more detailed process descriptions, integration of multiple processes, inclusion of economic modules and improved user interfaces. This study presents the first comprehensive evaluation of DSTs in Europe, revealing a diverse yet moderately adopted landscape. Increasing user engagement, enhancing technical integration and improving accessibility are essential for promoting a wider use of DSTs to improve soil health. By adopting these recommendations, DSTs can play a key role in achieving the EU's sustainability goals, fostering resilient agricultural systems and addressing environmental challenges such as soil degradation and climate change.

Recycling agricultural residues to obtain production factors directly in the farm could be crucial to improve sustainability. The aim of this study was to use plant residues to produce both organic amendments (on-farm compost) and plant biostimulants (liquid extracts). They were applied on a 2-year organic fennel crop, both alone (compost on-farm - OC) and combined (compost on-farm plus parsley extract - OCex) and compared with two commercial organic fertilizers (of vegetal origin - ORG-V; and of animal origin - ORG-A) and an unfertilized control, alone (NF) and combined with the extract (NFex). On average, the agronomic performance of compost treatments was higher than the unfertilized control and comparable to ORG-V. The use of the plant extract induced a synergistic effect with the on-farm compost, likely due to the P, K, Ca, Fe, and Mg supplementation by the extract to fennel crop. This is a relevant result, particularly in the perspective of widening the number of fertilizers produced inside the farm in organic farming, thus avoiding both synthetic fertilizers and commercial organic fertilizers. Finally, on-farm compost use reduced GWP emissions, since an average value of -12.44%, compared to the commercial fertilized treatments, was found, thus suggesting environmental sustainability.

Soil health and climate change are increasingly impacting agriculture across Europe. Decision support tools (DSTs) have emerged as essential tools to help make accurate, evidence-based agricultural decisions aimed at enhancing productivity, profitability, and effective soil health management. Nevertheless, the adoption of these tools remains limited among farmers and varies across different regions. The aim of this study was to investigate, through a participatory approach, the challenges and drivers influencing the uptake and adoption of DSTs for sustainable soil management in Europe and Turkey. Our goal was to engage various stakeholders to identify the challenges and drivers associated with this process and collaboratively develop actionable recommendations to expand the application of DSTs. Multi-stakeholder workshops were conducted in Italy, Latvia, Sweden and Turkey, bringing together end-users, farmers, advisors, tool developers, researchers and policymakers from diverse agricultural contexts. The discussions during these workshops addressed the current use of DSTs, barriers to adoption, and potential solutions for scaling their use. The findings revealed that the primary barriers to adoption and scaling included costs, tool viability, data complexity, limited access to technical support, compatibility issues and insufficient marketing. To overcome these barriers and enhance the appeal of DSTs to users, stakeholders highlighted the necessity for user-friendly, affordable tools that offer enhanced transparency, real-time information, and adaptability to local farming conditions. Furthermore, stakeholders emphasised the importance of user-driven designs that could stimulate the innovation process and consider the interactions between human and technology. This study emphasises the complexity of adopting and scaling DSTs and the need for considering the local agricultural context. Stakeholder insights were categorised into a set of recommendations such as defining the scope of DSTs application, enhancing capacity building, creating a road map for stakeholders, and considering regional disparities in the participatory implementation process. A systematic, participatory approach is essential for addressing the different dimensions of the DST adoption and scaling process while taking into account regional differences in conditions and user needs.

Over the last decade, the detection of phosphonic acid in organic food, a residue of plant protection products not permitted by Regulation (EU) 2021/1165, has become a critical issue for European organic producers. Approximately 10 % of EU irregularities involved organic wines, testing positive for PHY and, less frequently, for ethyl-phosphonic acid. We conducted a study on two white and two red organic wines, spiked with 10 mg/L of phosphonic acid or left unspiked (controls), and stored at different temperatures and durations to identify the origins of phosphonic acid and ethyl-phosphonic acid contamination and to establish an acceptable maximum residual level in organic wines. Our findings indicate that ethyl-phosphonic acid is inevitably formed in wines over time, influenced by the initial concentration of phosphonic acid and storage temperature. Consequently, the presence of ethyl-phosphonic acid, and by extension fosetyl, should not always be considered evidence of fosetyl-Al application in organic vineyards. We propose setting the maximum residual level of phosphonic acid in organic wines at 1.0 mg/L to minimize the risk of ethyl-phosphonic acid formation, even under suboptimal storage conditions or during wine aging.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is not only a key indicator of soil health but also essential for biodiversity, water retention, and nutrient cycling. SOC underpins climate resilience, sustainable agriculture, and ecosystem functionality. This study explored the role of functional biodiversity in soil C dynamics, emphasizing plant and microbial diversity in agricultural soils. The research addressed four key questions: (i) How does functional diversity explain variations in SOC and water-extractable organic carbon (WEOC)? (ii) How do interactions between microbial groups and plant traits influence SOC and WEOC dynamics? (iii) Do farming practices affect plant and microbial functional groups involved in SOC turnover? (iv) What is the impact of farming practices on SOC-related functional diversity? Data collected from seven experimental sites across Europe and Turkey revealed that approximately 60 % of SOC and WEOC variability was determined by functional biodiversity. Structural equation modelling indicated that while plant functional groups did not directly affect SOC, traits such as specific leaf area, the presence of perennials, and grass-like species significantly influenced bacterial and fungal functional groups. These microbial groups negatively impacted SOC and were highly responsive to farming practices. This study, the first of its kind to integrate plant, bacterial, and fungal community functionality, highlights the critical role of functional biodiversity in SOC turnover. The findings underscore the importance of incorporating functional approaches into sustainable soil management practices to enhance soil monitoring and agrosystem design at multiple scales.

Continuous agricultural activities lead to soil organic carbon (SOC) depletion, and agroecological intensification practices (i.e., reduced soil disturbance and crop diversification) have been suggested as strategies to increase SOC storage. The study aims to assess the effect of agroecological intensification levels (lower (T1) and highest (T2)) on the soil C pool and aggregate stability and validate the correlation between different variables compared to the control (lowest/none (T3), where agroecological intensification was not applied. The C-stock, soil microbial biomass carbon (SMB-C), SOC, water extractable organic carbon (WEOC) in bulk soil, fine and coarse soil aggregates, and water-stable aggregates (WSA) were measured during maximum nutrient uptake in plants under diversified agroecological practices across different environmental conditions (core sites: Italy (CS1), France (CS2), Denmark (CS4), Spain (CS5), Netherlands (CS6), Lithuania (CS7), Turkey (CS8), and Belgium (CS9)). The soil aggregate stability varied among the CSs and treatments. At sites CS7 and CS9, WSA was higher in T1 and T2 compared to the control; a similar trend was observed at other sites, except CS1. SMB-C differed among the core sites, with the lowest value obtained in CS5 (52.3 μg g−1) and the highest in CS6 (455.1 μg g−1). The highest average contents of SOC and WEOC were obtained in bulk soil at CS2 (3.1 % and 0.3 g kg−1 respectively). Positive and statistically significant (p < 0.001) correlations were detected among all variables tested with SOC in bulk soil and WSA. This study demonstrates the significance of agroecological practices in improving soil carbon stock and optimizing plant–soil–microbe interactions.

The European Commission has set targets for a reduction in nutrient losses by at least 50% and a reduction in fertiliser use by at least 20% by 2030 while ensuring no deterioration in soil fertility. Within the mandate of the European Joint Programme EJP Soil 'Towards climate-smart sustainable management of agricultural soils', the objective of this study was to assess current fertilisation practices across Europe and discuss the potential for harmonisation of fertilisation methodologies as a strategy to reduce nutrient loss and overall fertiliser use. A stocktake study of current methods of delivering fertilisation advice took place across 23 European countries. The stocktake was in the form of a questionnaire, comprising 46 questions. Information was gathered on a large range of factors, including soil analysis methods, along with soil, crop and climatic factors taken into consideration within fertilisation calculations. The questionnaire was completed by experts, who are involved in compiling fertilisation recommendations within their country. Substantial differences exist in the content, format and delivery of fertilisation guidelines across Europe. The barriers, constraints and potential benefits of a harmonised approach to fertilisation across Europe are discussed. The general consensus from all participating countries was that harmonisation of fertilisation guidelines should be increased, but it was unclear in what format this could be achieved. Shared learning in the delivery and format of fertilisation guidelines and mechanisms to adhere to environmental legislation were viewed as being beneficial. However, it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to harmonise all soil test data and fertilisation methodologies at EU level due to diverse soil types and agro-ecosystem influences. Nevertheless, increased future collaboration, especially between neighbouring countries within the same environmental zone, was seen as potentially very beneficial. This study is unique in providing current detail on fertilisation practices across European countries in a side-by-side comparison. The gathered data can provide a baseline for the development of scientifically based EU policy targets for nutrient loss and soil fertility evaluation.

Weeds have always been considered an insidious enemy, capable of reducing crop production. Conversely, the agroecological vision attributes a key role to the spontaneous flora in promoting plant diversity and belowground interactions, which may improve the ecological performance of agroecosystems. We summarized the literature on the weeds’ arbuscular–mycorrhizae (AM) interaction and we analyzed evidence on the: (i) AM suppressive/selective effect on weed communities; (ii) effect of weeds on AM colonization, and (iii) positive role of AM-supporting weeds on forming shared mycorrhizal hyphal connections in agroecosystems. While some authors conceptualized AM as a weed control tool, others underlined their selective effect on weed communities. Recent studies suggest that AM-host weeds can participate in the development of a common mycorrhizal mycelial network (MMN) among different plants species. Nevertheless, direct evidence of the actual exchange of nutrients and C between coexisting plants through MMN in agroecosystems is missing. Although the effect of agricultural practices on plant community-AM interactions are complex, more conservative farming management seems to foster AM populations. Future studies should focus on: (i) field studies, (ii) weed communities and their traits, rather than on the most abundant species, and (iii) the use of advanced analytical techniques, able to monitor MMN development and functionality.

Crop diversification in spatial and temporal patterns can optimize the synchronization of nutrients plant demand and availability in soils, as plant diversity and soil microbial communities are the main drivers of biogeochemical C and nutrient cycling. The introduction of multi-cropping in organic vegetable production can represent a key strategy to ensure efficient complementation mediated by soil microbiota, including beneficial mycorrhizal fungi. This study shows the effect of the introduction of multi-cropping in five European organic vegetable systems (South-West: Italy; North-West: Denmark and Belgium; North-East: Finland and Latvia) on: (i) soil physicochemical parameters; (ii) soil microbial biomass stoichiometry; (iii) crop root mycorrhization; (iv) bacterial and fungal diversity and composition in crop rhizosphere; (v) relative abundance of selected fungal pathogens species. In each site, three cropping systems were considered: (1) crop 1-monocropping; (2) crop 2-monocropping; (3) crop 1-crop 2-intercropping or strip cropping. Results showed that, just before harvest, multi-cropping can increase soil microbial biomass amount and shape microbial community toward a predominance of some bacteria or fungi phyla, in the function of soil nutrient availability. We mainly observed a selection effect of crop type on rhizosphere microbiota. Particularly, Bacteroidetes and Mortierellomycota relative abundances in rhizosphere soil resulted in suitable ecological indicators of the positive effect of plant diversity in field, the first ones attesting an improved C and P cycles in soil and the second ones a reduced soil pathogens' pressure. Plant diversity also increased the root mycorrhizal colonization between the intercropped crops that, when properly selected, can also reduce the relative abundance of potential soil-borne pathogens, with a positive effect on crop productivity in long term.

Crop diversification has been identified as a tool to improve both productive and environmental performances of organic horticulture. We tested the introduction of faba beans in a tomato cropping system—both as preceding crop and in strip cropping (SC)—under different fertilization strategies—faba residues, animal manure, and vegetable compost. We studied: (i) the tomato nutrient uptake and yield and quality; (ii) the soil-N and P, the N-budget, and the mycorrhizal colonization. SC did not provide consistent positive effects on tomato production and quality, namely the N-uptake, N in the tomato yield, the mean fruit weight, and the sugar accumulation in berries, regardless of the type of fertilizers applied. SC improved the tomato dry yield and P-uptake, especially in years when the faba growth and the subsequent yield were problematic. Faba residues could provide sufficient N to sustain tomato production but care should be given in balancing additional N-inputs. Organic fertilization increased the soil-N concentration but did not always translate into an increased yield and a higher quality production, with the risk of escalating N-losses. SC improved the soil-P availability and mycorrhizal colonization in tomato, due to the rhizobia–mycorrhiza-mycorrhiza association, especially when coupled with organic fertilization. Finally, introducing faba as SC holds potential to improve the productive and environmental performance of organic tomato production.

Sustainably increasing organic vegetable crop productivity is needed to meet growing demands, considering replacement of conventional animal manures with alternative fertilizers. We investigated the effects of intercropping (IC) and different organic fertilization strategies, and their interactions, on the plant-soil system. A 2-year IC field experiment with white cabbage and beetroot was conducted with two compost-supplemented fertilization strategies (animal-based AF+C; plant-based PF+C) and one control with pig slurry (CONT). Root growth was measured with the minirhizotron method. Overall productivity of intercropping (IC) was lower or similar to that of monocropping (MC) systems with a land equivalent ratio of 0.8 in 2018 and 1.0 in 2019. IC affected rooting intensity in only few soil layers: at harvest (2018), beetroot IC had higher rooting intensity compared to beetroot MC in 0.25-0.75 m soil layer. Mycorrhizal colonization of beetroot roots was increased by 37 % under IC. CONT crops had the highest yield and nitrogen (N) accumulation in 2018. In 2019, yield, N and phosphorous (P) accumulation and soil enzyme activity were higher in the PF+C and CONT conditions than with AF+C. Potential N mineralization was 24-37 % higher under PF+C compared to CONT and AF+C, whereas hot water extractable P was highest under animal-based fertilization strategies (CONT: 8.66 mg kg(-1), AF+C: 8.56 mg kg(-1)) compared to PF+C: 7.99 mg kg(-1). Benefits of productivity and N-use-efficiency from complementary root growth and resource use were not found in cabbage-beetroot IC. Instead, displacement of sowing/planting dates in the second year decided the dominating species, supported by mycorrhiza in beetroot. This management practice reduced the level of competition and increased the overall productivity of the IC system compared to 2018. The plant-based fertilization strategy had higher soil fertility as indicated by potential N mineralization and similar P use efficiency and can replace pig slurry. The methods of IC and fertilization strategy interacted only on potential N mineralization. Long-term improvements are expected with compost-supplemented fertilization strategies owing to their high organic carbon and N inputs.

Within the new “European Green Deal”, the European Commission defined crucial challenges for the agriculture of future decades, such as making food production more sustainable by considering the local pedo-climatic and socio-economic specificities [...]

Quality and safe food is an imperative in organic production. Recently, in EU market some organic fruits and vegetables were positive (>0.01 mg/kg) to phosphonic acid (i.e., phosphite), despite fosetyl-Al or phosphite are not allowed as plant protection products in Reg. EC n.889/2009. In 2016, the Italian Ministry of Agricolture funded the BIOFOSF project to the Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, which promoted a partecipatory approach among researchers, farmers and control bodies for solving this issue. The endogenous production of phophonic acid was not observed, while it was evidenced that its origin is due only to external inputs. A contamination of some plant protection products (PPP) and organic fertilizers allowed in organic farming was found, thus suggesting a deep revision of their official control system.

Mycorrhizal symbiosis represents a valuable tool for increasing plant nutrient uptake, affecting system biodiversity, ecosystem services and productivity. Introduction of agroecological service crops (ASCs) in cropping systems may determine changes in weed community, that can affect the development of the mycorrhizal mycelial network in the rhizosphere, favoring or depressing the cash crop mycorrhization. Two no-till Mediterranean organic horticultural systems were considered: one located in central Italy, where organic melon was transplanted on four winter-cereals mulches (rye, spelt, barley, wheat), one located in southern Italy (Sicily), where barley (as catch crop) was intercropped in an organic young orange orchard, with the no tilled, unweeded systems taken as controls. Weed "Supporting Arbuscular Mycorrhiza" (SAM) trait, weed density and biodiversity indexes, mycorrhization of coexistent plants in the field, the external mycelial network on roots were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, crop P uptake, yield and quality were evaluated. We verified that cereals, used as green mulches or intercropped, may drive the weed selection in favor of the SAM species, and promote the mycelial network, thus significantly increasing the mycorrhization, the P uptake, the yield and quality traits of the cash crop. This is a relevant economic factor when introducing sustainable cropping practices and assessing the overall functionality of the agroecosystem.