Teacher corrective feedback (TCF) plays a vital role in second language (L2) learning. Recent studies have examined feedback provided by both human teachers and large language models (LLMs). However, little is known about how students' trust differs toward scaffolded corrective feedback (SCF)-that is, feedback that incrementally progresses from indirect to direct during interaction-when it is provided by an LLM such as ChatGPT versus a language teacher. To address this gap, this study compared the effects of SCF, delivered by language teachers and ChatGPT, on L2 learning outcomes and student trust. Using a mixed-methods design, 40 lower-intermediate Iranian learners of English as a foreign language were randomly assigned to two conditions to receive scaffolded CF on English article usage from either a teacher or ChatGPT across four sessions. Learning gains obtained from immediate and delayed post-tests were analyzed using ANOVA and paired-sample t-tests, while semi-structured interviews and feedback interaction logs were examined using thematic analysis. Results showed that students in the teacher-delivered feedback group significantly outperformed those in the ChatGPTdelivered feedback group on both post-and delayed post-tests. Qualitative analyses suggested that this advantage stemmed from higher trust in the teacher, driven by the teacher's personalized emotional and technical support. The findings highlight that while ChatGPT can serve as a feedback tool in L2 instruction, its effectiveness depends on teacher mediation that attends to learners' individual differences and affective needs.

ABSTRACT Contributions in This Special Issue The contributions to this special issue collectively demonstrate the conceptual breadth, methodological diversity, and global relevance of IDLE as an innovative pedagogy. Across diverse educational and sociocultural contexts, the included studies extend current understandings of IDLE by examining its intersections with learner psychology, digital equity, pedagogy, identity, and emerging forms of AI‐mediated language learning beyond formal classrooms. Rather than reviewing individual articles in detail, this editorial synthesizes the shared intellectual directions that emerge across the collection, highlighting IDLE as a dynamic and context‐sensitive form of learning that both complements and challenges traditional instructional paradigms. Positioning IDLE Within the Sustainable Development Agenda Building on the contributions, this editorial further positions IDLE within the broader framework of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, it conceptualizes IDLE as a micro‐level, learner‐driven practice with potential macro‐level implications for sustainable development. Through its capacity to foster linguistic competence, digital literacy, and learner agency, IDLE may contribute to advancing key SDG priorities, including equitable access to quality education, social inclusion, and lifelong learning. In this sense, the special issue not only advances scholarship on IDLE but also foregrounds its relevance as a pedagogical and societal resource in addressing global challenges in an increasingly digitalized world.

The advancement of digital technologies has spurred a surge in research on informal digital learning of English (IDLE) in second language (L2) acquisition. However, few studies have compared the relationships between artificial intelligence (AI) and non-AI-IDLE on affective variables such as grit, motivation, self-confidence, and L2 speaking anxiety, which are associated with L2 willingness to communicate (WTC). To address this gap, this study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design in the English as a foreign language (EFL) context of Iran, collecting data through 250 questionnaires and 10 semi-structured interviews. Multiple regression modeling revealed that while both digital environments correlated with the affective variables, only non-AI IDLE, self-confidence, grit, and motivation acted as significant predictors of L2 WTC. Complementing these statistical insights, thematic analysis of the qualitative findings provided critical context for this human-centric preference, suggesting that non-AI-IDLE fostered greater community engagement and situational awareness compared to AI-IDLE. These results highlight the importance of balancing AI and non-AI IDLE to support students' affective variables and enhance their L2 WTC. This research not only contributes to a deeper understanding of IDLE and L2 communication behaviors but also emphasizes the need for further investigation into the evolving role of AI in informal language learning in the rapidly changing world.

Background: Informal digital learning of English (IDLE) has been widely shown to enhance English as a foreign language (EFL) learners' proficiency. However, most research has examined a single context, limiting understanding of how IDLE shapes learners' willingness to communicate in a second language (L2 WTC) across different sociocultural environments. Objectives: This study addresses this gap by comparing IDLE practises and their influence on L2 WTC amongst EFL learners in Iran and Macau. Methods: A cross-cultural mixed-methods design was adopted. In the quantitative phase, Lee and Sylv & eacute;n's (2021) questionnaire was administered to 352 EFL learners (250 in Iran; 102 in Macau). Hierarchical regression analyses tested the extent to which receptive IDLE (consuming English digital content) and productive IDLE (creating English digital content) predicted L2 WTC in each context. In the qualitative phase, 20 learners (10 per context) participated in semi-structured interviews supported by photos and videos illustrating their IDLE activities. These materials were used in photo-elicitation and video-stimulated recall sessions. Data were analysed thematically. Results: Receptive and productive IDLE both significantly predicted L2 WTC amongst Iranian students, whereas only receptive IDLE emerged as a significant predictor for students in Macau. Qualitative findings revealed that differences in IDLE use were shaped by social-political conditions, socio-economic opportunities and historical-cultural factors unique to each context. Conclusions: The study demonstrates that IDLE contributes to L2 WTC differently across contexts and that sociocultural factors strongly mediate learners' engagement in digital English practises. These findings highlight the importance of context-sensitive approaches for optimising IDLE-based learning in Iran and Macau.

While digital technologies are recognised as catalysts for language development, research predominantly focuses on well-resourced contexts, leaving a gap in understanding multilingual acquisition in non-Western, resource-constrained settings. This study addresses this gap through a nine-month longitudinal case study of two 5- to 6-year-old (male and female) Persian-speaking multilingual children in Iran, examining how family scaffolding support structures mediate informal digital language learning (IDLL). Drawing on sociocultural theory, we collected data from mothers through demographic profiles, semi-structured interviews and monthly reflective diaries, which were evaluated using reflexive deductive-inductive thematic analysis. Findings reveal that parents and older siblings serve as critical sociolinguistic mediators, employing affective, cognitive and technical scaffolding to navigate tensions between local linguistic traditions and global digital influences. Notably, the home emerges as a site of 'digital transnationalism', where families bypass local educational constraints to nurture multilingual identities through intergenerational and peer-led scaffolding. This exploratory study challenges the techno-centric assumption that digital materials alone suffice, instead positioning the family unit as a crucial facilitator of a child's multicultural development. These insights offer valuable perspectives for understanding informal language acquisition in other non-Western contexts, advocating a shift to prioritise the sociocultural dynamics of early digital engagement.

This study examined English vocabulary learning by using three types of flashcards: paper flashcards, non-gamified mobile application (app) flashcards (i.e., digital flashcards), and gamified mobile app flashcards (i.e., gamified flashcards) in a privately owned language institute in Iran. Employing a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, we quantitatively and qualitatively assessed the impacts of mobile-based flashcards in comparison to paper flashcards on Iranian English as a foreign language (EFL) students' vocabulary and collocation learning. A total of 98 Iranian students, aged 9 to 11, studying EFL in a language institute were selected to participate. The participants were divided into three groups: a paper flashcard group, a digital flashcard group, and a gamified flashcard group. To evaluate their learning, participants' productive collocation knowledge and receptive vocabulary knowledge were quantitatively assessed using a vocabulary and collocation knowledge test. While all groups showed gains in second language vocabulary knowledge, the results revealed that the gamified flashcard group achieved significantly greater gains compared to the digital and paper flashcard groups. Additionally, qualitative data were gathered through semi-structured interviews to explore students' attitudes toward mobile-based flashcards in comparison to paper flashcards. The interview transcripts were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis, revealing three key themes: (1) the vocabulary learning benefits of flashcards, (2) the affective aspect of flashcards, and (3) the challenges associated with using flashcards. The findings offer valuable insights for game designers, language teachers, and parents on when and how to utilize different types of flashcards for vocabulary and collocation learning, considering both their learning benefits and potential challenges.

Artificial intelligence-mediated informal digital learning of English (AI-IDLE) is emerging as a promising field in computer-assisted language learning (CALL). This study asserts a need to adopt a skill-specific (e.g., writing) perspective to examine the unique challenges and psychological mechanisms associated with second language (L2) writing. Drawing upon the theoretical concepts of L2 writing future selves (i.e., the ideal L2 writing self and the ought-to L2 writing self) and L2 writing enjoyment, this study seeks to investigate the motivational and affective basis of AI-IDLE writing (AI-IDLE-W). We collected questionnaire data from 412 Chinese university students and conducted postsurvey interviews with 12 of them. The quantitative findings demonstrated that both the ideal L2 writing self and the ought-to L2 writing self can significantly influence AI-IDLE-W, but only the ideal L2 writing self can have an effect on students' L2 writing enjoyment. Analysis of the interview data not only confirmed quantitative findings but also added nuances and contextual details to them. Furthermore, it disclosed a more dynamic and complicated mechanism of how L2 writing future selves, enjoyment, and AI-IDLE-W intertwine with each other as learners negotiate their own learning contexts. This explanatory sequential mixed-method design reveals implications for future pedagogical practices in supporting L2 learners' writing skill development in the environment of AI-IDLE.

This cross-cultural study examines how savoring beliefs mediate the relationship between Informal Digital Learning of English (IDLE) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' Willingness to Communicate (WTC). Drawing on data from 770 Iranian and Turkish EFL university students, the study employs Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to analyze the intricate connections between digital learning engagement, positive psychological constructs, and communicative behavior. Results indicate that IDLE significantly predicts savoring beliefs in both cultural contexts, with a stronger effect observed among Iranian learners. However, savoring beliefs did not mediate the relationship between IDLE and WTC in either group. Furthermore, while savoring beliefs negatively predicted WTC for Turkish EFL students, the relationship was weaker and statistically insignificant among Iranian participants. These findings underscore the nuanced influence of cultural dimensions, particularly power distance, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation, on language learning behaviors. The study enriches computer-assisted language learning, and Positive Psychology research by highlighting the role of digital engagement and emotional regulation in shaping communicative willingness. Pedagogical implications suggest integrating IDLE into formal instruction and developing savoring strategies to enhance learners' positive emotional experiences.

Artificial intelligence-mediated informal digital learning of English (AI-IDLE) might strengthen second language (L2) learners' motivational self-concept (e.g., the ideal L2 self) and enhance their foreign language enjoyment (FLE) by enabling them to build confidence, engagement, and willingness to practice their English skills in a self-directed, instant feedback, and non-judgemental learning environment. In our explanatory mixed-method study, we collected questionnaire data from 299 Chinese undergraduate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners and interviewed 12 of them. Structural equation modelling showed that students who participated in AI-IDLE more often reported a clearer ideal L2 self and greater FLE, but those with a greater ideal L2 self did not report more FLE. In addition, gender did not moderate the impact of AI-IDLE on FLE. Analysis of the interview data not only corroborated the quantitative results but also highlighted that while EFL learners can acquire a sense of FLE and vivid ideal L2 selves as they agentively negotiate the affordances of generative AI for informal language learning purposes, the sense of FLE and motivational force may shift across contexts to shape their continued investment in AI-IDLE practices. By comparing and integrating the quantitative and qualitative insights, this study highlights the pedagogical potential of AI-IDLE activities that can strengthen EFL learners' motivation, enjoyment, and commitment to English learning.

Many studies on bilingual mother-child dyads highlight the central role of mothers in cultivating children’s identities. However, there is a pressing need to better understand how mothers fulfill this role through informal digital learning strategies in contexts like Iran, where sanctions impose severe limitations on digital access and resources. Fifty short video clips (approximately 42 min total) from five Iranian mother-child dyads were recorded during informal digital learning, with at least eight clips per dyad. Additionally, six bilingual children and their five mothers were individually interviewed for about 30 min each. The data underwent deductive and inductive coding, followed by thematic and lexicometric analysis. The findings reveal the convergent and divergent perspectives of mothers and underscore their crucial role in cultivating their children’s identities. These insights can guide English Language Teaching (ELT) stakeholders, especially language teachers, in understanding mothers’ impact on children’s identity construction and the benefits of connecting home and school activities for children’s future learning. In particular, the findings provide a foundation for developing practical strategies to support mothers in their identity-cultivating role and designing teacher training programs focused on effective home-school collaboration, especially within contexts facing digital or resource constraints.

This study explores English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers' perceptions of the ecological factors influencing students' use of informal digital learning of English (IDLE). 26 EFL teachers participated in semi-structured interviews and complete a narrative frame. The results of conventional content analysis yielded four categories: macro-system factors (e.g., technological development, educational systems, and English status), micro-system factors (e.g., school and family), chrono-system factors (e.g., current EFL learners’ digital experiences) and personal factors (e.g., age, personality traits, digital literacy, awareness and attitude, and prior experiences with technology). The implications of the findings are discussed for stakeholders in EFL education.

Previous studies have shown that demographic factors can influence parental mediation strategies during children’s digital gameplay. However, little is known about maternal and paternal mediation in Iranian families. This study examined the relationship between maternal and paternal mediation (restrictive, active, viewing, technical, and laissez-faire) and demographic profiles (gender, age, socioeconomic status (SES), and education level) during the digital gameplay of children aged 6–10 years. Understanding this relationship is key to developing age-appropriate, culturally sensitive strategies to guide children’s digital interactions. A sequential mixed-methods study involving 210 Iranian parents (167 mothers and 43 fathers) was conducted, including a survey and follow-up interviews with 10 parents (8 mothers and 2 fathers), to explore their role in mediating children’s digital gameplay. The quantitative results showed a strong positive relationship between mothers’ technical and active mediation and education level, and between fathers’ education, viewing, and restrictive mediation. However, a negative correlation was found between fathers’ education and laissez-faire mediation. Qualitative interviews revealed that both mothers and fathers tend to mediate children’s digital playtime towards more educational games, using primarily restrictive and active co-playing mediation strategies. Iranian parents, particularly fathers, may benefit from adopting more technical and active co-playing mediation to further support their children’s digital gameplay at home. Sociocultural norms, especially Islamic-Iranian norms, may influence parental mediation of children’s digital gameplay.

Previous research has acknowledged that informal digital learning of English (IDLE) between parents and children can play an important role in children’s first and second language (L1 and L2) learning. However, most previous parent–child studies have been conducted in Western countries where English is the child’s first language. This study aimed to understand how Iranian children learn English as an L2 in a home context through mother–child home digital experiences. Five Iranian families which included six children, aged 6 to 7 years old, and their mothers were recruited as participants to explore mother–child IDLE experiences. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and observations of mother–child L2 English interactions with popular culture using Video-Stimulated Recall (VSR) methods. The overall findings revealed children are interested in popular culture (e.g., playing Lego Jurassic World as a digital game, watching Princess Mononoke as an animation, and engaging with Drawing for Kids applications in English) and their dominant Discourses at home were gaming, narration, female role-modeling, music, and artistic experiences. Moreover, the findings showed that the role of mothers as scaffolders is essential for enhancing their children's learning at home, whether by asking questions or helping children discuss their favorite popular culture. However, maternal scaffolding can be improved by providing mothers with guidance to effectively support their children’s IDLE which can further enhance their children’s learning outcomes.

The integration of technology in English as a foreign language (EFL) education has catalyzed informal digital learning of English (IDLE). EFL teachers increasingly partake in IDLE for diverse reasons: enhancing language skills, broadening pedagogical methods, accessing professional growth, and pursuing personal interests, potentially boosting job engagement. Yet, scant attention has been paid to IDLE's impact on EFL teacher-related aspects like job engagement, technological pedagogical content knowledge, and digital competence. This research probes the link between IDLE and EFL teacher job engagement, exploring the mediating roles of technological pedagogical content knowledge and digital competence. 375 EFL teachers were selected via convenience sampling and invited to complete scales measuring IDLE, technological pedagogical content knowledge, digital competence, and job engagement. The results of structural equation modeling revealed that technological pedagogical content knowledge and digital competence strongly mediated the relationship between IDLE and job engagement among EFL teachers. Additionally, a significant positive correlation was found between IDLE and the EFL teachers' job engagement. Furthermore, the findings disclosed a substantial positive correlation between IDLE and the EFL teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge and digital competence. The findings underscore that IDLE can be incorporated in EFL education to improve EFL teachers' efficiency.

Limited studies exist that demonstrate the way that children show critical digital literacies such as expressing their voices through digital technologies at home. To explore this further, the present study draws on Mirra et al.'s framework (2018) to analyze the types of critical digital engagement with digital technologies. Critical digital engagement refers to different critical digital literacy practices used to achieve a particular goal such as critically evaluating, creating, sharing, and designing digital resources. In this study, we recruited five Iranian families involving five mothers and six children aged six to seven. The data collection process involved semi-structured interviews with the children and mothers, demographic profiles, and collecting photos of the children's home digital literacy practices. Having used deductive coding, we report on several differences and similarities between children's digital literacy practices and their types of critical engagement such as critical digital consumption, production, distribution, and invention. These similarities and differences may stem from political, historical, social, cultural, and economic influences in the Iranian context. Understanding the way that children express their voices through digital technologies can give invaluable insights for policymakers, teachers, and parents to better support children in becoming engaged digital citizens.

This review was conducted to explore the use of digital technologies with young children in early childhood language and literacy education. It centers on peer-reviewed empirical journal articles published during the past two decades. An initial sample of refereed journal articles ( N = 631) was compiled from systematically searching the Web of Science Core Collection databases. Following strict inclusion and exclusion criteria, 89 articles were included in the review. Five major dimensions of the selected studies were coded: demographic information, setting, digital technology used, research designs, and research findings. All of the articles selected for inclusion were systematically mapped to provide a valuable resource for researchers in this area. The main findings of the review were categorized and are reported in five subsections: print knowledge, alphabet knowledge, phonological awareness, early vocabulary knowledge, and narrative skills. Each subsection is framed with practical implications gleaned from the empirical studies.

This mixed-methods study examined the association between informal digital learning of English (IDLE) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners' vocabulary knowledge (VK). A total of 365 EFL learners, including 172 males and 193 females, participated in the quantitative part, while 24 EFL learners (12 males and 12 females) participated in the qualitative part. The participants completed the Informal Digital Learning of English Scale (IDLES), an English vocabulary test, and wrote a reflective statement. Pearson correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis, and thematic coding analysis were employed to analyze the collected data. The findings revealed a significant positive correlation between IDLE and the EFL learners' VK. Additionally, the results indicated that the EFL learners' VK was influenced by all dimensions of IDLES, including IDLE-enhanced benefits, IDLE practices, others and support, authentic L2 experience, resource and cognition, and frequency and device. Moreover, four overarching themes emerged from the qualitative findings: having authentic learning experiences, receiving support from others, benefiting from quantity and diversity, and being motivated and confident. The findings evidenced that IDLE is an effective way of enhancing EFL learners' VK as it can provide them with exposure to authentic and diverse English learning resources and activities beyond traditional classrooms.

While the study of serious games has received due attention, few studies have investigated their potentials of simultaneously offering a route to both content and language acquisition. Understanding the interdisciplinary educational affordance of serious game play is significant, as it might provide game designers and teachers with insight into how to best design and implement serious games. In our study, the serious game Saving Lives was used to teach healthcare knowledge and English vocabulary to Iranian nursing students in an experimental group (N = 80), while control group students were taught healthcare knowledge and English vocabulary using traditional methods (N = 80). Using a mixed-methods approach (pre- and post-tests, an open- and closed-ended questionnaire), intentional content learning, incidental vocabulary acquisition, and learners' perceptions of digital game play were investigated. Results showed statistically significant improvement in participants' healthcare knowledge and incidental vocabulary acquisition in the experimental group compared to the control group. Vocabulary and content knowledge gains in the experimental group were the result of students' positive attitudes toward game play, the multimodal contextual clues provided during game play, and repetitive exposure to target words in the game instructions. Using serious games to integrate content and language teaching for specific purposes, such as nursing, was found to be both a viable option for teachers and a preferable medium for fostering students' learning and engagement.Supplemental data for this article is available online at https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.2021242 .