Child maltreatment can lead to maladaptive coping; therefore, focusing on high-risk behaviors is key to understanding victimization in adulthood. This study examines the extent to which high-risk behaviors mediate between child maltreatment and adulthood victimization using life course theory as a guiding framework. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 14,526) is used for the analysis. The findings underline the salience of child maltreatment as a turning point and high-risk behaviors in maintaining trajectories that lead to later victimization. The mixed mediation findings underscore the nuance surrounding mechanisms fostering victimization across the life course.

Evidence from a long line of research indicates that criminal justice system involvement concentrates within families. However, much remains unknown about whether the timing of exposure to household member incarceration is differentially associated with future system contact. One way to rigorously assess this possibility is to examine full sibling pairs who are discordant on age at first exposure to household member incarceration to control for unobservable familial confounds that cluster within families. This study aims to address this void by analyzing longitudinal sibling pair data from two population-based samples from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth. Results from a series of sibling comparison models reveal mixed findings for the association between age at first exposure to family member incarceration and justice system involvement. The implications for the effect of age at first exposure to family member criminal justice system involvement, criminological theory, and prevention/intervention programming are discussed.

Purpose: Corresponding with the expectations of labeling theory, much scholarship has observed that justice system contact and exclusionary school punishments can have long-term criminogenic consequences. However, limited work has examined family-related factors that might moderate the effects of formal labeling events. Specifically, exposure to abuse and neglect during childhood represents a key risk factor for offending, but it also is theoretically plausible that child maltreatment can operate as an informal label that further amplifies the crime-producing effects of official interventions. Methods: We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 14,078) to assess (1) the independent effects of formal labeling in adolescence and child maltreatment on self-reported offending in young adulthood and (2) whether child maltreatment moderates the effects of formal labels. Results: We find that arrest, juvenile court adjudication, expulsion from school, and child maltreatment are independently and positively related to young adult offending. Additionally, the effects of arrest and adjudication, but not school discipline, are strengthened by exposure to child maltreatment. Conclusions: Through the lens of labeling theory, the results suggest that child maltreatment may operate as a type of informal labeling mechanism that aggravates the disadvantages associated with justice system contact.

This chapter will provide a critical and scoping review of the literature surrounding polyvictimization and its associated consequences among transgender and gender nonconforming people (TGNC), including nonbinary people. In comparison to cisgender people, TGNC people are at an increased risk for a wide variety of victimization types, including (but not limited to) sexual assault, intimate partner violence, harassment, and discrimination (James et al., 2016). In addition to the increased risk for victimization among TGNC people, recent research studies have revealed that TGNC people also carry a high risk of experiencing multiple types of victimization, known as polyvictimization (DeKeseredy et al., 2020). Polyvictimization has profound consequences for victims, as study findings indicate polyvictims have an increased risk of multiple negative outcomes, such as mental health challenges, substance abuse, and suicidal ideation (e.g., Adams et al., 2016; Kerig, 2018; Radatz & Wright, 2015). Polyvictimization among LGBTQ+ people has been understudied, with less attention on TGNC peoples' experiences with polyvictimization, specifically. Despite the increased vulnerabilities TGNC people carry, minimal empirical studies on polyvictimization among TGNC people have been conducted. Given the increased risk for victimization among TGNC people and the negative consequences associated with polyvictimization, far more research in this area is needed. Therefore, this chapter seeks to bring attention to this topic by providing a critical overview of the current knowledge on polyvictimization and its consequences among TGNC people. Suggestions for future research and practical implications concerning polyvictimization of TGNC people will also be addressed.

Prior research on police culture has focused primarily on line officers. This study examined culture at the upper administrative level by identifying a taxonomy of police chiefs based on their role orientations. Relevant predictors of culture types based on chief, department, and jurisdiction characteristics were also tested. Data come from a survey of 460 local police chiefs in Texas and 2013–2017 census estimates from the American Community Survey. Five groups of chiefs were observed in the data: service-oriented, peace-keeper, law and order professionals, lay-lows, and traditionalists. Having a graduate education, being an internal hire, total years of experience in law enforcement, department size, and residential instability levels significantly differentiated the groups. This study sheds insight into occupational culture from the upper administrative level of police organizations.

Prior research has provided consistent evidence that minority students are more likely than White youth to experience punitive forms of discipline in schools. Scholars have theorized that these disadvantages are closely connected to gender and socioeconomic status, but little research has explored how these factors independently and jointly might moderate the effects of race/ethnicity. Using data from the 2012 to 2018 8th and 10th grade cohorts of the Monitoring the Future survey ( N = 53,986), these analyses find that minority students are more likely than Whites to experience suspension/expulsion and office referrals, and this pattern is especially prominent among females. Further, racial/ethnic disparities are amplified for youth whose parents have higher levels of educational attainment, though some differences by gender also emerge.

Child maltreatment is a pervasive social problem often perpetuated by family members and is related to a wide array of negative life outcomes. Although substance use is an outcome commonly associated with experiences of child maltreatment, not all individuals who experience maltreatment struggle with such issues. Many individuals can positively adapt to experiences of maltreatment based on levels of resilience and susceptibility. Research suggests that genetic differences may partly explain why negative outcomes develop for some, but not for others. Few studies have examined the extent to which genetic and environmental factors influence the longitudinal association between child maltreatment and varying forms of substance use, leaving a fundamental gap in our current understanding of this association. The current study aims to address this gap by analyzing a sample of twins from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). Findings from a series of univariate and bivariate biometric models reveal that the longitudinal associations between maltreatment, cigarette use, and marijuana use are accounted for by additive genetic and nonshared environmental factors. Moreover, the magnitude of the contribution varies across unique subgroups of cigarette and marijuana use. Directions for future research and theoretical implications are discussed.

Being fearful of crime is, unfortunately, a common experience. Research shows that many factors influence a person's fear of crime, demonstrating that certain groups are generally more fearful than others. Even though they are typically young, college students express being fearful of crime on and off campus. What has yet to be investigated is whether college students who attend school in the United States are fearful at similar levels to their Canadian counterparts. Further, the correlates of fear of crime may also be different. To explore these issues, data from the American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment II survey of U.S. and Canadian college students are used. Results show that Canadian college students generally perceive their safety as being higher than U.S. college students, even though they face elevated victimization risks. Further, some correlates of fear of crime differ for U.S. and Canadian college students. These findings suggest the need for additional cross-national comparative work to see if patterns generalize across contexts.

The #MeToo movement centers on raising awareness of risky situations for victimization and encourages the general community to intervene in these situations. Similarly, sexual violence awareness programming that take place on college campuses throughout the academic year can prime individuals to be active bystanders. Except for a handful of systematically evaluated bystander intervention programs, however, it is unclear how informal sexual violence awareness programming affects actual intervention behaviors. The link between prior victimization and bystander intervention is also not well understood. Given these gaps in research, the current study examines how exposure to sexual violence awareness programming and prior victimization are associated with bystander intervention. In particular, we consider the intersection of prior sexual victimization and participating in sexual violence awareness programming on campus. Utilizing a sample of 735 college students from a four-year southeastern university, the results of the current study demonstrate victims of sexual violence who attend sexual violence awareness programming are less likely to intervene. The findings of the current study highlight the importance of program design and suggest that increased attention to the problem of sexual violence does not necessarily translate into bystander intervention. Overall, this may run counter to goals of the #MeToo movement and deserves further attention. Avenues for future research are discussed.

Research suggests that people in prison may be especially vulnerable to victimization and may be more likely to report exposure to multiple types, known as poly-victimization. However, the literature surrounding patterns of victimization among prisoners is limited. Before we can fully understand the variation in victimization experiences among prisoners, a necessary first step is to identify victim profiles within prisons. The current study utilizes data from the 2004 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities and employs latent class analysis to identify unique victim profiles among prisoners to understand the variation in victimization experiences, with a focus on identifying those exposed to poly-victimization. The findings of this study indicate (a) that there are four distinct victim profiles—poly-victimization (2%), physical victimization in adulthood (31%), physical victimization in childhood (17%), and low/no victimization (49%); (b) that some prisoners experience poly-victimization, although this consists of a small proportion of prisoners; and (c) that there are clear demographic differences between the latent classes, with some of the largest differences among those in the poly-victimization profile. The findings of the current study are important because they add more depth to the knowledge regarding poly-victimization among prisoners, a topic that has received little attention from researchers. The current study suggests that correctional policy may need to be tailored in a way that recognizes the different needs of prisoners who have been exposed to different forms of victimization.

Campus sexual victimization has moved to the forefront of the academy's collective awareness, and recent years have seen drastic increases in scholarship and legal reforms directed at the sexual victimization of college women. Recently, campus climate scholars have turned their attention to the location of victimization given that off-campus areas, such as fraternity parties, have been historically conflated to suggest that one-in-five students experience sexual victimization (on campus) and that college campuses are the epicenters of the public health crisis. However, on-campus sexual victimization is not interchangeable with the sexual victimization of college women. Therefore, determining whether location of campus victimization has distinct correlates is important for efforts related to developing context-specific programs. To contribute to this discourse, this brief report explores the location of campus sexual victimization, specifically examining the types of incidents and contextual factors that occurred on campus compared to off campus. Data come from a campus climate survey drawn from a sample of courses offered during the spring 2017 semester at a southeastern university. Findings indicate that off-campus victimization is more common than on-campus victimization and that alcohol and drug consumption—voluntary and forced—are related to off-campus victimization. Findings suggest that protective behavioral strategies—as they relate to alcohol consumption—and bystander intervention programs may be promising approaches for universities. This study concludes with suggestions for reconceptualizing definitions of on- and off-campus locations.

Research shows that U.S. college students are at risk for a variety of victimization types. College students in Canada also experience similar types of victimization compared to U.S students, yet recent research shows that Canadian students are at a greater risk than U.S. college students of being victimized. Little is known, however, as to whether college-level factors influence victimization risk and how these risks may be different for U.S. and Canadian college students. Using the American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment data (ACHA-NCHA II), the current study builds upon past research by exploring the role of both individual and school characteristics and whether they are similarly related to risk of victimization in the two populations. The findings show that Canadian students are at higher risk for victimization and that some school-level factors play a role in predicting this risk for all students, with some variation in ones that matter for each country.

Although engagement in risky lifestyle and routine activities play a major role in increasing the risk of violent victimization, less is known about the factors that precede engagement in risky lifestyles. The quality of interpersonal relationships is shown to be an important factor that influences one's life. Therefore, the lack of social support may be a potential factor that shapes why individuals get involved in risky lifestyles and routine activities. There is evidence that a lack of social support is linked to victimization and a lack of social support is also linked to engagement in risky lifestyle. What is not understood, however, is how these variables are linked with one another. To address this gap, risky lifestyle factors are explored for their potential mediating role in the link between social support and violent victimization. A path analysis is conducted with data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). The final sample size is 14,322 and the average age of respondents is 16 years old. Results suggest that social support from different sources do not have the same effects on violent victimization, and only certain lifestyle factors mediate the link to violent victimization. The findings imply that a lack of social support not only has direct effects on violent victimization, but also leads individuals to engage in risky lifestyles that also increase the risk of victimization. Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.

The victimization of college students is well documented. Comparative research on the extent of victimization and the risk factors for it is less prevalent. Although some cultural similarities exist, it is possible that American and Canadian college students differ in their experience of victimization. These differences have not been fully explored. To do so, we use data from the American College Health Association's National College Health Assessment II, which assesses health and risk behaviors of college students. In 2013, this survey was also administered to Canadian college students. We find that Canadian college students have higher risks of both violent and sexual victimization, likely due to their higher levels of several risk factors. In addition, key differences in the risk factors for violent and sexual victimization emerged. These findings have implications for the development and implementation of risk reduction and prevention programs on college campuses.

While most research focuses on the positive effects of social support on adolescent development, Cullen hypothesizes that social support may promote crime and delinquency under certain conditions. Specifically, when social support is derived from deviant sources, it may promote offending behavior. In this study, we test an elaborated version of this differential social support hypothesis. The results indicate that, among adolescents who associate with delinquent peers, peer social support is associated with an increase in delinquent behavior. These findings highlight the potential dark side of social support. Implications for criminological theory and crime control policy are discussed.

Research shows that individuals with mental health problems are at an increased risk of victimization compared with individuals without such problems, and certain mental health problems are linked with particular types of victimization. Although most research has not used theory to guide why these differential risks exist, researchers have begun to theorize the reasons why individuals with mental health problems experience victimization. In line with these recent inquiries, the present study uses a Lifestyle/Routine Activities perspective to examine the victimization of people with mental health problems. Further, different types of mental health problems are explored for their potential links to victimization. Risky lifestyle factors are also explored for their potential mediating role in the link between mental health and victimization. A path analysis is conducted with data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). Results suggest that different mental health problems have differing links to victimization types, and lifestyle factors mediate the link for some forms of victimization. The findings imply that certain lifestyle factors explain victimization risk among people with mental health problems, but these individuals may also have unique risk factors related to mental health. Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.

OBJECTIVE:Victims' compensation programs are positioned to serve an important therapeutic role. Their use by persons with physical and mental health problems has not been investigated. This study evaluates the extent to which applicants have physical and mental health needs and whether receiving compensation is related to these needs.METHODS:Data were part of a larger study designed to assess satisfaction with victim compensation in Georgia. The sample included 500 victim compensation applicants. Individuals were surveyed about their experiences applying for compensation as well as their current wellbeing. Descriptive and multivariate analyses investigated the link between physical and mental health problems and denial of victim compensation.RESULTS:Applicants for crime victim compensation in Georgia experienced a range of physical and mental health problems. Almost half of applicants had been diagnosed with a mental health condition, and 60% had been diagnosed with at least 1 physical health condition. Co-occurring disorders were common. In addition, being denied compensation was significantly related to having a mental health condition and to the number of diagnosed mental health conditions.CONCLUSIONS:Crime victim applicants have clear physical and mental health needs. Being denied compensation benefits is related to having a mental health disorder. These results suggest that victim compensation programs can be an intervention point for victims and their families for either receipt of direct service or referral to needed services. In addition, changes in program administration may need to be made to alleviate disparity in award benefit related to mental health status.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS:Although alcohol use has been linked to sexual victimisation among college students , the specific ways in which college students may be able to avoid the negative consequences of excessive drinking as they relate to sexual victimisation have not been fully explored. This study examines whether using protective behavioural strategies attenuates the risk of sexual victimisation for both male and female college students and whether this relationship is moderated by alcohol use.DESIGN AND METHOD:Data were obtained from the Fall 2012 National College Health Assessment Survey. This survey is conducted on college campuses across the USA and institutions that self-selected to participate in the survey. The sample used in the study includes 19 881 students (male and female) across 51 schools.RESULTS:Findings indicate that although women are more likely to use protective behavioural strategies, these strategies work to reduce the likelihood of experiencing sexual victimisation for both sexes among those who are high-frequency drinkers.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS:This study suggests that the frequency of alcohol use is important when considering the risk of sexual victimisation among college students, and protective behavioural strategies can help reduce this risk among frequent drinkers. [Daigle LE, Johnson LM, Napper SL, Azimi AM. Protective behavioural strategies while drinking: do they protect against sexual victimisation and is this protection gendered?. Drug Alcohol Rev 2016;35:573-579].