Overshooting storms are convective systems with updrafts that penetrate through the tropopause into the overlying stratosphere. These storms can rapidly transport a wide variety of chemical species and aerosols from the boundary layer and free troposphere directly to the stratosphere. The central plains of the U.S. and the Sierra Madre Occidental of Mexico are two of the global hotspots for overshooting convection. While the existence of these storms has been known for several decades, the amount of tropospheric air, including water vapor, trace gases, and aerosols, transported across the tropopause is poorly understood, as is their impact on the dynamics, chemistry, and radiative balance of the stratosphere. Climate models suggest that as Earth’s climate continues to warm, overshooting convection over the U.S. may increase, potentially causing changes to stratospheric composition and transport. To address these scientific questions, the NASA ER-2 high-altitude research aircraft flew 31 missions during the summers of 2021 and 2022 to make observations of the outflow from overshooting storms in the stratosphere over North America and the eastern Pacific Ocean as part of the Dynamics and Chemistry of the Summer Stratosphere (DCOTSS) project. The ER-2 carried a payload of 12 instruments to measure meteorological parameters, water and its isotopologues, trace gases, and aerosol properties. Ozone, water vapor, and aerosol sondes were also launched on balloons during the field deployments. This paper describes the science goals of the DCOTSS project, the aircraft measurement strategy, the data produced by the project, and highlights of science results to date.

Ethane-based chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons can have multiple isomers that are difficult to separate using gas chromatography with detection by electron capture (GC-ECD) or even mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Examples include CFC-113 and CFC-113a; CFC-114 and CFC-114a; CFC-112 and CFC-112a; and HCFC-124 and HCFC-124a. As a result, atmospheric histories reported in the past by most laboratories for the more abundant isomer can represent an ill-defined combination of both chemicals. This is especially true for CFC-113 over the past decade, as mole fractions of CFC-113a have increased rapidly during that time and the contribution of this isomer to our understanding of atmospheric changes measured ostensibly for CFC-113 has not been known. Being able to accurately and routinely determine atmospheric abundances for each of these isomers separately from one another is important as these isomers have different environmental impacts (ozone-depleting potentials and global warming potentials) and different sources likely contribute to their emissions. Here we demonstrate a technique for quantifying the abundances of co-eluting isomers using GC-MS even when ions unique to the different isomers are unavailable. Initial results for CFC-113 and 113a will be presented that allow a reassessment of the atmospheric decline and global emission rate of CFC-113 over the past decade, and they confirm the rapid increases in the atmospheric abundance of CFC-113a. Co-variations between the measured CFC-113a atmospheric mole fractions and other gases are observed at particular sites (e.g., Mauna Loa, Hawaii) that help identify regions where CFC-113a emissions are currently substantial, contributing to its rapid global increase.

The stratospheric aerosol layer plays an essential role in stratospheric chemical and radiative processes. Emissions of SO2 from small-to-midsized volcanic eruptions are typically introduced into the lower stratosphere, where a background aerosol already exists. The radiative and chemical consequences of these eruptive emissions depend in part upon the characteristics of these background particles, whose number originates from the troposphere. In-situ observations of sub-0.1 µm diameter particles in the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere are rare, but are of particular importance in understanding the contribution of upwelling ultrafine particles formed near the tropical tropopause and their subsequent evolution in the stratospheric (Brewer-Dobson) circulation. In the Stratospheric Aerosol processes, Budget and Radiative Effects (SABRE) mission from January to March 2023, we used three particle sizing instruments on the NASA WB-57 high-altitude aircraft to measure the size distribution of aerosol particles in the size range from 0.003 to ~4.0 μm in the lower stratosphere from middle to high latitudes at altitudes up to 19.6 km. The composition of individual aerosol particles >0.1 µm was also measured, along with O3, N2O, SF6 and OCS. Together, these measurements were used to investigate dynamical and chemical processes in the stratosphere that determine the evolution of the stratospheric aerosol as a function of stratospheric age up to several years. We observed a clear bimodal size distribution structure, with a small mode (< 0.1 μm diameter) originating from the troposphere and a larger mode (>0.2 µm diameter) originating from the photolysis of OCS (the classic Junge, or stratospheric, aerosol layer). These two modes evolve as a function of stratospheric age in a manner consistent with coagulation, condensation, and sedimentation. These are the first reported observations of the presence and evolution of this bimodal aerosol structure deep into the stratosphere. The small (tropospheric) particle mode provides a significant condensation sink at young stratospheric ages. SO2 from modest volcanic eruptions emitted into the lower stratosphere may condense on these smaller particles, reducing the amount of light scattering per unit mass. Proposed geoengineering efforts must also account for this tropospheric mode of particles. Models simulating aerosol processes in the stratosphere need to accurately represent tropospheric particles in the lower stratosphere and their evolution with stratospheric age.

The NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory (GML) measures atmospheric hydrogen (H2) in grab samples collected weekly as flask pairs at over 50 sites in the Cooperative Global Air Sampling Network. Measurements representative of background air sampling show higher H2 in recent years at all latitudes. The marine boundary layer (MBL) global mean H2 was 552.8 ppb in 2021, 20.2 ± 0.2 ppb higher compared to 2010. A 10 ppb or more increase over the 2010–2021 average annual cycle was detected in 2016 for MBL zonal means in the tropics and in the Southern Hemisphere. Carbon monoxide measurements in the same-air samples suggest large biomass burning events in different regions likely contributed to the observed interannual variability at different latitudes. The NOAA H2 measurements from 2009 to 2021 are now based on the World Meteorological Organization Global Atmospheric Watch (WMO GAW) H2 mole fraction calibration scale, developed and maintained by the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry (MPI-BGC), Jena, Germany. GML maintains eight H2 primary calibration standards to propagate the WMO scale. These are gravimetric hydrogen-in-air mixtures in electropolished stainless steel cylinders (Essex Industries, St. Louis, MO), which are stable for H2. These mixtures were calibrated at the MPI-BGC, the WMO Central Calibration Laboratory (CCL) for H2, in late 2020 and span the range 250–700 ppb. We have used the CCL assignments to propagate the WMO H2 calibration scale to NOAA air measurements performed using gas chromatography and helium pulse discharge detector instruments since 2009. To propagate the scale, NOAA uses a hierarchy of secondary and tertiary standards, which consist of high-pressure whole-air mixtures in aluminum cylinders, calibrated against the primary and secondary standards, respectively. Hydrogen at the parts per billion level has a tendency to increase in aluminum cylinders over time. We fit the calibration histories of these standards with zero-, first-, or second-order polynomial functions of time and use the time-dependent mole fraction assignments on the WMO scale to reprocess all tank air and flask air H2 measurement records. The robustness of the scale propagation over multiple years is evaluated with the regular analysis of target air cylinders and with long-term same-air measurement comparison efforts with WMO GAW partner laboratories. Long-term calibrated, globally distributed, and freely accessible measurements of H2 and other gases and isotopes continue to be essential to track and interpret regional and global changes in the atmosphere composition. The adoption of the WMO H2 calibration scale and subsequent reprocessing of NOAA atmospheric data constitute a significant improvement in the NOAA H2 measurement records.

describes the NOAA H 2 flask air measurement procedure for 1988-1997.A few aspects of the program for the period 1988-2009 are summarized here to explain limitations in the older NOAA H 2 dataset and the decision to not convert older measurements to the current WMO recommended calibration scale.These limitations can broadly be categorized as 1) issues related to the non-linear response of the analyzers used for flask analysis, 2) instability in the underlying internal scale maintained by GML, and 3) lack of adequate electronic records to provide full transparency.These all impact the quality and internal consistency of the early data and the ability to retroactively convert the early data to the current WMO recommended H 2 in air calibration scale.

The age of air is an important transport diagnostic that can be derived from trace gas measurements and compared to global chemistry climate model output. We describe a new technique to calculate the age of air, measuring transport times from the Earth's surface to any location in the atmosphere based on simultaneous in situ measurements of multiple key long-lived trace gases. The primary benefits of this new technique include (1) optimized ages of air consistent with simultaneously measured SF6 and CO2; (2) age of air from the upper troposphere through the stratosphere; (3) estimates of the second moment of age spectra that have not been well constrained from measurements; and (4) flexibility to be used with measurements across multiple instruments, platforms, and decades. We demonstrate the technique on aircraft and balloon measurements from the 1990s, the last period of extensive stratospheric in situ sampling, and several recent missions from the 2020s, and compare the results with previously published and modeled values.

The Montreal Protocol and its successive amendments have been successful in curbing emissions of ozone-depleting substances and potent greenhouse gases via production/consumption controls. Here we show that the radiative forcing and equivalent effective chlorine from hydrochlorofluorocarbons has decreased from 61.75 mW m−2 and 321.69 ppt, respectively, since 2021, 5 years before the most recent projected decrease. This important milestone demonstrates the benefits of the Protocol for mitigating climate change and stratospheric ozone layer loss.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments are the trusted source of scientific evidence for climate negotiations taking place under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Evidence-based decision-making needs to be informed by up-to-date and timely information on key indicators of the state of the climate system and of the human influence on the global climate system. However, successive IPCC reports are published at intervals of 5–10 years, creating potential for an information gap between report cycles. We follow methods as close as possible to those used in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) Working Group One (WGI) report. We compile monitoring datasets to produce estimates for key climate indicators related to forcing of the climate system: emissions of greenhouse gases and short-lived climate forcers, greenhouse gas concentrations, radiative forcing, the Earth's energy imbalance, surface temperature changes, warming attributed to human activities, the remaining carbon budget, and estimates of global temperature extremes. The purpose of this effort, grounded in an open-data, open-science approach, is to make annually updated reliable global climate indicators available in the public domain (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.11388387, Smith et al., 2024a). As they are traceable to IPCC report methods, they can be trusted by all parties involved in UNFCCC negotiations and help convey wider understanding of the latest knowledge of the climate system and its direction of travel. The indicators show that, for the 2014–2023 decade average, observed warming was 1.19 [1.06 to 1.30] °C, of which 1.19 [1.0 to 1.4] °C was human-induced. For the single-year average, human-induced warming reached 1.31 [1.1 to 1.7] °C in 2023 relative to 1850–1900. The best estimate is below the 2023-observed warming record of 1.43 [1.32 to 1.53] °C, indicating a substantial contribution of internal variability in the 2023 record. Human-induced warming has been increasing at a rate that is unprecedented in the instrumental record, reaching 0.26 [0.2–0.4] °C per decade over 2014–2023. This high rate of warming is caused by a combination of net greenhouse gas emissions being at a persistent high of 53±5.4 Gt CO2e yr−1 over the last decade, as well as reductions in the strength of aerosol cooling. Despite this, there is evidence that the rate of increase in CO2 emissions over the last decade has slowed compared to the 2000s, and depending on societal choices, a continued series of these annual updates over the critical 2020s decade could track a change of direction for some of the indicators presented here.

Whole Air Samples (WAS) were collected as part of the Dynamics and Chemistry of the Summer Stratosphere (DCOTSS) field campaign in the Upper Troposphere-Lower Stratosphere (UTLS) region during Summer 2021 and 2022. Grid-Rad and satellite imagery were used to identify regions of overshooting convection, and areas with outflow from the overshooting were targeted by the DCOTSS aircraft using trajectory models and in-situ measurements. Because a wide range of trace gases with different atmospheric lifetimes and sources are measured, WAS can provide insight into the processes that influence trace gas composition of the UTLS over North America. We investigate the tropospheric tracer relationships within and around these deep convective regions to determine the extent of penetration of tropospheric gases into the lower stratosphere (LS). Compounds such as ethane and ethyne with short (< 6 months) tropospheric lifetimes do not reach the LS without rapid transport from deep convection, and we observe cases where these gases are elevated above stratospheric background, typically well correlated with other tropospheric tracers (e.g. CO). However, the relationship between enhanced water vapor from overshooting convection and tropospheric tracers is more complex. Further, we show that ratios between different trace gas species can help identify and distinguish air mass types (e.g., biomass burning, oil and gas production, urban influence, etc.). Finally, we determine the Cl- and Br- halogen budgets for 2021 and 2022 stratosphere over N. America and the contribution of very-short-lived organic halogen species.

The radiative balance of the upper atmosphere is dependent on the magnitude and distribution of greenhouse gases and aerosols in that region. Climate models predict that with increasing surface temperature, the primary mechanism for transporting tropospheric air into the stratosphere (known as the Brewer-Dobson circulation) will strengthen, leading to changes in the distribution of atmospheric water vapor, other greenhouse gases, and aerosols. Stratospheric relationships between greenhouse gases and other long-lived trace gases with various photochemical properties (such as N2O, SF6, and chlorofluorocarbons) provide a strong constraint for tracking changes in the stratospheric circulation. Therefore, a cost-effective approach is needed to monitor these trace gases in the stratosphere. In the past decade, the balloon-borne AirCore sampler developed at NOAA's Global Monitoring Laboratory has been routinely used to monitor the mole fractions of CO2, CH4, and CO from the ground to approximately 25 km above mean sea level. Our recent development work adapted a gas chromatograph coupled with an electron capture detector (GC-ECD) to measure a suite of trace gases (N2O, SF6, CFC-11, CFC-12, H-1211, and CFC-113) in the stratospheric portion of AirCores. This instrument, called the StratoCore-GC-ECD, allows us to retrieve vertical profiles of these molecules at high resolution (5-7 hPa per measurement). We launched four AirCore flights and analyzed the stratospheric air samples for these trace gases. The results showed consistent and expected tracer-tracer relationships and good agreement with recent aircraft campaign measurements. Our work demonstrates that the StratoCore-GC-ECD system provides a low-cost and robust approach to measuring key stratospheric trace gases in AirCore samples and for evaluating changes in the stratospheric circulation.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessments are the trusted source of scientific evidence for climate negotiations taking place under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), including the first global stocktake under the Paris Agreement that will conclude at COP28 in December 2023. Evidence-based decision-making needs to be informed by up-to-date and timely information on key indicators of the state of the climate system and of the human influence on the global climate system. However, successive IPCC reports are published at intervals of 5–10 years, creating potential for an information gap between report cycles. We follow methods as close as possible to those used in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) Working Group One (WGI) report. We compile monitoring datasets to produce estimates for key climate indicators related to forcing of the climate system: emissions of greenhouse gases and short-lived climate forcers, greenhouse gas concentrations, radiative forcing, surface temperature changes, the Earth's energy imbalance, warming attributed to human activities, the remaining carbon budget, and estimates of global temperature extremes. The purpose of this effort, grounded in an open data, open science approach, is to make annually updated reliable global climate indicators available in the public domain (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8000192, Smith et al., 2023a). As they are traceable to IPCC report methods, they can be trusted by all parties involved in UNFCCC negotiations and help convey wider understanding of the latest knowledge of the climate system and its direction of travel. The indicators show that human-induced warming reached 1.14 [0.9 to 1.4] ∘C averaged over the 2013–2022 decade and 1.26 [1.0 to 1.6] ∘C in 2022. Over the 2013–2022 period, human-induced warming has been increasing at an unprecedented rate of over 0.2 ∘C per decade. This high rate of warming is caused by a combination of greenhouse gas emissions being at an all-time high of 54 ± 5.3 GtCO2e over the last decade, as well as reductions in the strength of aerosol cooling. Despite this, there is evidence that increases in greenhouse gas emissions have slowed, and depending on societal choices, a continued series of these annual updates over the critical 2020s decade could track a change of direction for human influence on climate.

&lt;p&gt;The likelihood for successful emission control and mitigation efforts of trace gases having adverse environmental effects can be enhanced by using a multi-faceted framework for quantifying and understanding emissions. While bottom-up activity-based inventories provide a quantification of various source sectors, appropriately designed atmosphere-based (top-down) approaches are able to independently evaluate the inventory and further refine temporal changes and spatial distributions.&amp;#160; Differences between bottom-up and top-down estimates are oftentimes observed and represent prime opportunities for increasing understanding and refining estimates of emissions.&amp;#160; Here we will present results derived from atmospheric observations made in the remote global atmosphere as well as from our North American measurement network.&amp;#160; The remote global observations enabled the identification of an apparent violation of the Montreal Protocol.&amp;#160; After our atmospheric measurements identified this unexpected issue, fairly quick resolution appears to have been achieved, in part due to the additional understanding of likely underlying causes provided by industry experts. Our North American measurement network also allows for trace-gas emission estimates on national and state scales.&amp;#160; Results from these efforts will be discussed, with an emphasis on describing how the interaction between inventory-derived and atmosphere-based information has led to an improved understanding of emission magnitudes along with identifying areas needing additional study.&lt;/p&gt;

Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) is the third most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas and a major ozone‐depleting substance. Its main sources include anthropogenic activities (mostly agriculture) and natural emissions from ocean and soils. However, emission estimates for individual sources are highly variable due to uncertainties in N 2 O lifetime estimates and partitioning among sources. We derive annual global N 2 O emissions for 1990–2019 using NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory (GML) surface N 2 O observations and the N 2 O lifetime calculated in the NASA GEOS‐5 chemistry climate model. The inferred global mean N 2 O emissions has gradually increased from ∼15.8 TgN/yr in the early 1990s to ∼17.8 TgN/yr in the 2010s. This implies that anthropogenic N 2 O emissions have grown rapidly from ∼6.7 TgN/yr in the 1990s to about ∼8.7 TgN/yr in the 2010s, a ∼30% increase. With specially designed N 2 O isotopic tracers in 3‐D GEOSCCM, we estimate that, on global average, stratospheric enrichment contributes about +7.7‰/yr, +7.6‰/yr, +8.0‰/yr to tropospheric δ 15 N α , δ 15 N β , and δ 18 O budget, respectively. To balance the global mean isotopic signature for pre‐industrial terrestrial sources of δ 15 N α ∼ 6.7‰, δ 15 N β ∼ −12.6‰, δ 18 O ∼ 35.4‰, our 3‐dimensional isotopic budget simulation using the GEOSCCM suggests global mean anthropogenic isotopic signatures in the recent decades are δ 15 N α ∼ −18‰, δ 15 N β ∼ −20‰, δ 18 O ∼ 19‰. These anthropogenic isotopic estimates are significantly lighter than results from one‐box atmospheric model‐based estimates with the largest difference seen for δ 15 N β . More surface isotopic measurements are needed to better quantify the N 2 O isotopic signatures.

The detection of increasing global CFC-11 emissions after 2012 alerted society to a possible violation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP). This alert resulted in parties to the MP taking urgent actions. As a result, atmospheric measurements made in 2019 suggest a sharp decline in global CFC-11 emissions. Despite the success in the detection and mitigation of part of this problem, regions fully responsible for the recent global emission changes in CFC-11 have not yet been identified. Roughly two thirds (60 ± 40 %) of the emission increase between 2008–2012 and 2014–2017 and two thirds (60 ± 30 %) of the decline between 2014–2017 and 2019 were explained by regional emission changes in eastern mainland China. Here, we used atmospheric CFC-11 measurements made from two global aircraft surveys – the HIAPER (High-performance Instrumented Airborne Platform for Environmental Research) Pole-to-Pole Observations (HIPPO) in November 2009–September 2011 and the Atmospheric Tomography Mission (ATom) in August 2016–May 2018, in combination with the global CFC-11 measurements made by the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration during these two periods – to derive global and regional emission changes in CFC-11. Our results suggest Asia accounted for the largest fractions of global CFC-11 emissions in both periods: 43 (37–52) % during November 2009–September 2011 and 57 (49–62) % during August 2016–May 2018. Asia was also primarily responsible for the emission increase between these two periods, accounting for 86 (59–115) % of the global CFC-11 emission rise between the two periods. Besides eastern mainland China, temperate western Asia and tropical Asia also contributed significantly to global CFC-11 emissions during both periods and likely to the global CFC-11 emission increase. The atmospheric observations further provide strong constraints on CFC-11 emissions from North America and Europe, suggesting that each of them accounted for 10 %–15 % of global CFC-11 emissions during the HIPPO period and smaller fractions in the ATom period. For South America, Africa, and Australia, the derived regional emissions had larger dependence on the prior assumptions of emissions and emission changes due to a lower sensitivity of the observations considered here to emissions from these regions. However, significant increases in CFC-11 emissions from southern hemispheric lands were not likely due to the observed increase of north-to-south interhemispheric gradients in atmospheric CFC-11 mole fractions from 2012–2017.

Caption: Lightning discharges appear in various colours depending on the scatter of light inside the thundercloud and in the atmosphere.The intracloud lightning discharges in the centre of the thundercloud appear to be white with a bluish tint, and the cloud-to-ground discharge below appears to be orange.The right hand side of the thundercloud exhibits a green tint that is attributed to the unique composition of hydrometeors inside the thundercloud.The photo was taken in the late evening of 10 September 2013, near Tarragona in northeastern Spain.

Recent studies show that the Asian summer monsoon anticyclone (ASMA) transports emissions from the rapidly industrializing nations in Asia into the tropical upper troposphere. Here, we present a unique set of measurements on over 100 air samples collected on multiple flights of the M55 Geophysica high altitude research aircraft over the Mediterranean, Nepal, and Northern India during the summers of 2016 and 2017 as part of the European Union project StratoClim. These air samples were measured for 27 ozone‐depleting substances (ODSs), many of which were enhanced above expected levels, including the chlorinated very short‐lived substances, dichloromethane (CH 2 Cl 2 ), 1,2‐dichloroethane (CH 2 ClCH 2 Cl), and chloroform (CHCl 3 ). CH 2 Cl 2 mixing ratios in the tropopause region were 65–136 parts per trillion (ppt) in comparison to previous estimates of mixing ratios in the tropical tropopause layer of 30–44 ppt in 2013–2014. Backward trajectories, calculated with the trajectory module of the chemistry‐transport model CLaMS and driven by the ERA5 reanalysis, indicate possible source regions of CH 2 Cl 2 in South Asia. We derived total equivalent chlorine (ECl), and equivalent effective stratospheric chlorine (EESC) and found that these quantities were substantially higher than previous estimates in the literature. EESC at mean age‐of‐air of 3 years based on the 2016 measurements was 1,861–1,872 ppt in comparison to a previously estimated EESC of 1,646 ppt. Our findings show that the ASMA transports larger than expected mixing ratios of long‐lived and very short‐lived ODSs into the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, likely leading to an impact on the stratospheric ozone layer.

The mean age since air was last at the Northern Hemisphere (NH) midlatitude surface is a fundamental property of tropospheric transport. Here we approximate the mean age in terms of an "SF6 age" (Gamma SF6), derived from surface and aircraft measurements of SF6 that are broader in spatial scope and cover a longer time period (1997-2018) than considered previously. At the surface, Gamma SF6 increases from near-zero values north of 30 degrees N to similar to 1.5 years over the Southern Hemisphere (SH) extratropics, with the largest meridional gradients occurring in the tropics. By comparison, vertical gradients in Gamma SF6 are weak throughout, with only slight increases/decreases with height in the NH/SH. The broader spatial coverage of the measurements reveals strong variations in the seasonal cycle of Gamma SF6 within the (sub)tropics that are weaker over the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, compared to over the Indian Ocean. Observations from 2000 to 2018 reveal that the SF6 age at sites in the SH has been decreasing by similar to 0.12 years/dec. However, this decrease is not due to changes in transport but, rather, is likely related to changes in emissions, which have increased globally and reportedly shifted from northern midlatitudes into the subtropics. Simulations, which reproduce the SF6 age trends, show no decreases in an age-of-air tracer, reinforcing the fact that Gamma SF6 represents only an approximation to the mean age. Finally, the modeled SF6 ages are older than observed, by similar to 0.3-0.4 years throughout the southern extratropics. We show that this bias is partly related to an overestimation in simulated SF6 near emissions regions, likely reflecting a combination of uncertainties in emissions and model transport.

The NOAA Global Monitoring Laboratory serves as the World Meteorological Organization Global Atmosphere Watch (WMO/GAW) Central Calibration Laboratory (CCL) for CO2 and is responsible for maintaining the WMO/GAW mole fraction scale used as a reference within the WMO/GAW program. The current WMO-CO2-X2007 scale is embodied by 15 aluminum cylinders containing modified natural air, with CO2 mole fractions determined using the NOAA manometer from 1995 to 2006. We have made two minor corrections to historical manometric records: fixing an error in the applied second virial coefficient of CO2 and accounting for loss of a small amount of CO2 to materials in the manometer during the measurement process. By incorporating these corrections, extending the measurement records of the original 15 primary standards through 2015, and adding four new primary standards to the suite, we define a new scale, identified as WMO-CO2-X2019. The new scale is 0.18 µmol mol−1 (ppm) greater than the previous scale at 400 ppm CO2. While this difference is small in relative terms (0.045 %), it is significant in terms of atmospheric monitoring. All measurements of tertiary-level standards will be reprocessed to WMO-CO2-X2019. The new scale is more internally consistent than WMO-CO2-X2007 owing to revisions in propagation and should result in an overall improvement in atmospheric data records traceable to the CCL.