Sport competitions are inherently stressful and whether this stress is adaptive depends in part on athletes' perceived coping prospects and emotions regarding these competitions. The purpose of this study was to examine if athletes' social environment-namely high and low levels of task and social cohesion-causally lead to differences in precompetitive excitement and anxiety, and whether precompetitive secondary appraisal, perceived available social support, and competition-specific self-efficacy mediated this relationship. In this study, 170 currently competing members of task-interdependent sport teams participated in a 2 (task cohesion) x 2 (social cohesion) between-subjects experiment in which perceptions of team cohesion were manipulated via written scenarios. Results showed main effects of high vs. low task cohesion leading to greater excitement, perceived coping prospects (i.e., secondary appraisal), esteem and informational support. High vs. low social cohesion showed the same main effects and also led to greater emotional and tangible support; task cohesion influenced tangible support only under low social cohesion. Neither type of cohesion affected anxiety. Yet, the links from cohesion to excitement were mediated by social support, self-efficacy, and secondary appraisal as expected. This demonstrates that team cohesion, especially its social facet, may be utilized as a way to foster members' positive perceptions and experiences in response to competitive stress. These findings underscore the importance of athletes' social environments for their successful adaptation and encourage consultants, coaches, and teams to strategically develop social cohesion as a resource instead of neglecting it as tangential and potentially detrimental to task performance.

We examine whether adolescents’ participating in a variety of physical activities, locations, and/or with a variety of people relates to physical activity 16 months later and whether perceptions of variety mediate these relationships. Adolescents (N = 369) completed measures indicating various physical activities they participated in, where they primarily participated, and with whom they primarily participated, at three time points over a year (averaged for baseline measures). Perceptions of variety was measured 8 months later. Physical activity was measured 16 months after baseline. Mediation analyses tested perceptions of variety as a mediator of variety support and physical activity. Results indicated that variety of activities and variety of locations were indirectly associated with physical activity through perceptions of variety. Participating in a breadth of physical activities in a variety of locations during adolescence is positively associated with perceptions of variety, which relates to physical activity 16 months later.

The Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire 3 (BREQ3) is the most widely used instrument to measure exercise motivation under the self-determination theory (SDT) framework. It consists of 23 items measuring the six behavioral regulations advanced within SDT (intrinsic, integrated, identified, introjected, external, and amotivated) and has been used to track exercise motivation in young, old, active, and nonactive samples all over the world. In recent years, the instrument has been incorporated into applied and intervention-based research and due to limited resources and recruitment challenges in certain populations, assessments using the BREQ3 may need to be done more efficiently. As such, there is a need to develop shorter versions of the BREQ3 that enhance flexibility in research. In Studies 1 and 2, we created a 12-item BREQ3-12 (two items per behavior regulation) and a six-item BREQ3-6 (single item per behavior regulation). Then, we demonstrated the factor structure was commensurate with SDT and evidence of score reliability and criterion validity aligned with the full 23-item version (BREQ3-23). In Study 3, participants were randomly assigned to complete the BREQ3-6, BREQ3-12, or the BREQ3-23 and we replicated the results supporting that the factor structure, reliability, and validity of scores derived from the BREQ3-6 and BREQ3-12 aligned with scores from the BREQ3-23. Overall, the findings provide preliminary support for two shorter forms of the BREQ3-23 that may be useful for research in applied settings, interventions, or tracking changes in motives over time using multiwave, longitudinal research designs.

Objective Flourishing is a mental health indicator that helps students function optimally, which may be important for first-year university students. Physical activity (PA) also contributes to optimal functioning, yet the flourishing and PA relationship has received little attention. The bidirectional relationships between flourishing and meeting moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) guidelines were assessed during the first year of university. Methods: First-year university students completed surveys (September [T1], March [T2]). Reciprocal effects were examined in a cross-lagged path model. Results: Over 40% of the sample was not meeting MVPA guidelines at T1 or T2. Controlling for sex, higher T1 flourishing was associated with higher odds of meeting T2 MVPA guidelines. T1 MVPA did not predict T2 flourishing. Conclusions: The findings provide preliminary evidence that flourishing may support meeting MVPA guidelines for first-year students. Given low rates of meeting guidelines, flourishing and PA could be targeted to foster MVPA, supporting a healthy university transition.

Resistance training is an important component of exercise that has widespread positive distinct health benefits. However, studies examining exercise motivation typically assess general forms of exercise, thus unable to identify motivational distinctions between aerobic and resistance training. Three studies were conducted to explore the distinction between exercise modalities and to examine the extent to which behavioural regulations for resistance training relate to behaviour and strength outcomes. In Study 1 participants (N = 148) completed questionnaires assessing which exercise modalities were considered by the word "exercise". In Study 2 participants (N = 216) completed questionnaires assessing aerobic and resistance training motivation and behaviour. In Study 3 participants (N = 100) completed measures of resistance training motivation and behaviour, as well as upper and lower body strength tests. In Study 1, we observed bias in participants understanding of the term "exercise", whereby exercise is conflated with aerobic training. In Study 2, compared to general exercise motivation, resistance training motivation was more strongly correlated with resistance training behaviour. Finally, Study 3 demonstrated that more self-determined regulations for resistance training were positively correlated to resistance training behaviour and objective assessments of physical strength. Consistent with the tenets of Self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation for resistance training was the strongest predictor of physical strength outcomes. Overall, results indicate the efficacy in specifying resistance training motivation when developing research and/or exercise interventions targeting motivational influences.

Objectives Public health interventions for adolescent “obesity prevention” have focused predominantly on individualistic health behaviours (e.g., diet and physical activity) at the expense of recognizing body weight diversity and the array of social factors (e.g., stigma and discrimination of marginalized identities) that may be linked to weight status. Research is needed to examine the extent to which individualistic health behaviours versus social factors contribute to weight status in adolescents. As such, the aim of this study was to investigate the relative contribution of individualistic health behaviours versus social factors to objective and perceptual indices of weight status. Methods Cross-sectional survey data were collected as part of the Toronto Public Health Student Survey and comprised students 12 to 19 years of age ( N = 5515). Measures included perceived and objective weight status, social and demographic factors (e.g., gender, sexual orientation, school connectedness), and health behaviours (e.g., physical activity, nutritious consumption). Results Findings from latent variable regression models partially supported hypotheses, whereby social factors (i.e., age, sex, socio-economic access, sexual minority status) contribute similar amounts of variance, or relatively more variance in weight indices, compared to health behaviours (e.g., physical activity, nutritious consumption). Conclusion Contrary to traditional views of adolescent weight status, physical activity (i.e., school-based, individual, active transport) and nutritious consumption (i.e., fruits, vegetables, milk) were not associated with weight status, when considering social factors. These findings challenge the utility of public health approaches that target individualistic behaviours as critical risk factors in “obesity prevention” efforts in adolescence.

The Behavioural Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ) is the most widely used instrument to measure exercise motivation under the Self-Determination Theory (SDT) framework. It has been used to track exercise motivation in young, old, active, and non-active samples all over the world. The BREQ consists of 23 items measuring the six behavioural regulations advanced within SDT (intrinsic, integrated, identified, introjected, external, and amotivated). In recent years, the instrument has been incorporated into applied and intervention-based research, serving as an important predictor of physical activity and exercise. Due to limited resources and recruitment challenges in certain populations, assessments using the BREQ must be done more efficiently. As such, there is a need to develop shorter versions of the BREQ that enhance flexibility by reducing participant burden in research. In this study, we created a 12-item BREQ (2 items per behaviour regulation) and a 6-item BREQ (single item per behavior regulation). Using samples of adults (n1 = 323) and students (n2 = 225, n3 = 115), we established the 12-item BREQ and 6-item BREQ demonstrated factor structure commensurate with SDT and evidence of score reliability plus criterion validity aligned with the full 23-item version. The results were replicated in smaller samples of primary care recipients (n = 108), cardiac rehabilitation patients (n = 107), and active women (n = 66). Overall, the findings provide preliminary support for two shorter forms of the BREQ that may be useful for intervention research in applied settings or tracking changes in motives over time using mutli-wave, longitudinal research designs.

Objective: Physical activity levels decline from adolescence to adulthood, but participation in a variety of sports during childhood and adolescence (i.e., sampling) may increase physical activity behaviour during adulthood. We examined the association between sampling sports during adolescence and moderate-vigorous exercise behaviour in adulthood, and we assessed whether this relationship is mediated by perceived variety in exercise. Design: Study 1- prospective longitudinal; Study 2- cross-sectional. Our main outcome was exercise behaviour. Results: In study 1 (n = 775), sampling more sports during adolescence (b = .25, p < .01; 95% CI [.12, .39]) predicted increased frequency of exercise behaviour in young adulthood. In study 2 (n = 108), sampling more sports in adolescence (beta = .08, p = .03; 95% CI [.03, .17]) was indirectly associated with exercise behaviour in adulthood through perceived variety in exercise. Conclusion: These findings add to the evidence that sampling sports during adolescence is positively associated with moderate-vigorous exercise during adulthood, and the experience of variety may, in part, explain this relationship. This research generates new hypotheses regarding a potential psycho-social mediator (perceived variety in exercise) of the sampling-exercise behaviour relationship.

Engaging in healthy behaviors-such as regular physical activity and following a nutritious and balanced diet-brings about numerous health, social, and self-evaluative benefits. It is important, therefore, to understand the various factors that might support (or thwart) individuals' pursuit in those behaviors. The purpose of this chapter is to examine two distinct, but related, social factors that may represent opportune ways to promote both improved physical activity and healthier dietary practices. These social factors correspond to the provision and experience of variety and novelty. In this chapter, we chart conceptual definitions of variety and novelty, examine different theoretical frameworks and models that have been used to examine these constructs in health promotion settings, and evaluate how research to date has contributed to the current state of knowledge. Finally, we discuss implications for behavioral scientists and health promotion specialists, and offer recommendations for future research. Variety's the very spice of life, that gives it all its flavor. Cowper 1785/1855; lines 606-607

Abstract Background C-reactive protein (CRP) concentrations are associated with morbidity and mortality in breast cancer patients and moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) may help regulate CRP levels. Purpose The purpose of this prospective study was to examine intraindividual and interindividual changes in MVPA on changes in CRP levels among early posttreatment breast cancer patients. Methods During five data collections over the first year posttreatment for breast cancer, women (N = 138, Mage = 55.3, standard deviation = 11.1 years) completed a questionnaire, wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days to measure MVPA, and provided blood samples to measure CRP concentrations. Intraindividual and interindividual associations between MVPA on CRP were tested using hierarchical linear modeling. Results Based on the intraindividual associations, lower concentrations of CRP were evident when participants engaged in more, as compared to their average, MVPA (β = −.02, p < .021). In addition, interindividual analyses showed that women who engaged in more MVPA across the study period had lower concentrations of CRP compared to women who engaged in less MVPA (β = −.24, p = .006). Conclusions MVPA in breast cancer patients is consistently associated with lower CRP concentrations over time. Interventions may target individual MVPA early after diagnosis to mitigate CRP levels in breast cancer patients.

Objectives: Perceived variety in exercise predicts exercise behavior through autonomous motivation. However, psychological need satisfaction (viz. for competence, autonomy, and relatedness) may moderate the relationship between perceived variety in exercise and exercise behavior (through autonomous motivation). The purpose of the present study was to examine whether the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs in exercise contexts moderates the mediating role of autonomous exercise motivation in the relationship between perceived variety in exercise and exercise behavior. Design: Cross-sectional. Method: Adults (N = 499) completed an online questionnaire to measure the study variables. Associations were examined using structural equation modeling. Results: Psychological need satisfaction moderated the positive indirect relationship between perceived exercise variety and self-reported exercise behavior (via autonomous motivation) such that perceived variety was associated with exercise behavior when psychological need satisfaction scores were lower than average. Conclusions: Based on these findings, perceived exercise variety may act as a compensatory source of motivation when psychological need satisfaction is low. In addition to attempting to foster need-supportive exercise contexts, it may be particularly important for exercise promotion specialists to foster the experience of variety among individuals who have lower psychological need satisfaction.

Purpose Despite the recommendations for cancer survivors to engage in either moderate or vigorous physical activity, light-intensity physical activity may also have beneficial effects on mental health. The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between light, moderate, and vigorous physical activity and depressive symptoms in breast cancer survivors over 1 year post-treatment. Methods Participants ( N = 201) were a sample of breast cancer survivors who self-reported depressive symptoms and wore an accelerometer for seven consecutive days to measure physical activity, on five occasions every 3 months post-treatment for cancer. Results Based on the results of hierarchical linear modeling, relative to others (i.e., between-person effects) and to oneself (i.e., within-person effects), higher levels of light- and moderate-intensity physical activity, but not vigorous-intensity physical activity, were associated with lower scores of depressive symptoms. Conclusions In the first year post-treatment, increases in light- and moderate-intensity physical activity, but not vigorous-intensity physical activity, were associated with lower scores of depressive symptoms in relation to other study participants (i.e., between-person effects) and when participants were compared to their own typical levels of physical activity (i.e., within-person effects). The findings may have implications for physical activity recommendations following treatment for breast cancer as light-intensity physical activity may play a role in mitigating depressive symptoms over the first year.

Perceived variety in exercise complements satisfaction of the basic psychological needs embedded within self determination theory (namely competence, autonomy, and relatedness; Deci & Ryan, 2002) in relation to exercise-related well-being (Sylvester et al., 2014), and ill-being (Sylvester et al., 2016). The purpose of the present study was to examine the extent to which perceived variety in CrossFit (a contemporary strength and conditioning program) predicts variance in subjective vitality and burnout above and beyond satisfaction of the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. CrossFit is a relatively new exercise regime that is both popular and controversial. Researchers have yet to empirically investigate psychological factors that may lead to well-being (e.g., vitality) or ill-being (e.g., burnout) outcomes in this context. Using a prospective observational design, participants (n = 97) completed measures of psychological needs satisfaction and perceived variety in CrossFit at Time 1, and measures of subjective vitality and burnout one month later (Time 2). Results of two hierarchical linear regression analyses predicting subjective vitality and burnout, showed that above and beyond the variance explained by satisfaction of the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness (R2 = .23, p < .001; and R2 = .17, p < .01; respectively), perceived variety in CrossFit explained additional variance in subjective vitality (R2change= .05, p = .01) and burnout (R2change= .11; p < .001). Overall, perceived variety in CrossFit explains additional variance in subjective vitality and burnout above and beyond that explained by basic psychological needs satisfaction.Acknowledgments: This research was supported by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded to Benjamin Sylvester. Catherine Sabiston is supported by the Canada Research Chairs program.

Women diagnosed with breast cancer face an abundance of health challenges related to the disease and related treatments. Physical activity can help mitigate those challenges by improving health and well-being, and restoring a sense of control over one's health that is often lost. Survivors are aware of these benefits yet remain inactive. Health engagement control strategies (HECS), or a propensity to address health needs, are associated with increased motivation for health behaviors and may help in the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Based on theoretical tenets and empirical evidence, basic psychological needs are antecedents of physical activity behavior, yet are rarely tested prospectively in this population. The purpose of this study was to examine satisfaction of basic psychological needs for physical activity as mediators of the relationship between HECS and physical activity in a sample of recently treated breast cancer survivors. Women (N=149; Mage=55, SD=11 years) completed questionnaires immediately post-primary treatment (HECS), three months later (basic psychological needs satisfaction), and wore an accelerometer for a 7-day period 9-months post-treatment to assess moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Controlling for relevant personal and cancer specific variables, the relationship between HECS and physical activity was mediated by the satisfaction of autonomy (point estimate=1.18(83); 95% CI=.11 to 3.65), but not competence or relatedness. Findings remained consistent when controlling for baseline physical activity. These findings highlight the importance of engaging in one's healthcare and building a sense of autonomy for physical activity to support physical activity levels in the early post-treatment period following a breast cancer diagnosis.Acknowledgments: Canadian Institutes for Health Research, Canada Research Chairs Program

The economic burden of inactivity is substantial, with conservative estimates suggesting the global cost to health care systems is more than US$50 billion. School-based programs, including physical education and school sport, have been recommended as important components of a multi-sector, multi-system approach to address physical inactivity. Additionally, community sporting clubs and after-school programs (ASPs) offer further opportunities for young people to be physically active outside of school. Despite demonstrating promise, current evidence suggests school-based physical activity programs, community sporting clubs and ASPs are not achieving their full potential. For example, physical activity levels in physical education (PE) and ASP sessions are typically much lower than recommended. For these sessions to have the strongest effects on young people’s physical activity levels and their on-going physical literacy, they need to improve in quality and should be highly active and engaging. This paper presents the Supportive, Active, Autonomous, Fair, Enjoyable (SAAFE) principles, which represent an evidence-based framework designed to guide the planning, delivery and evaluation of organized physical activity sessions in school, community sport and ASPs. In this paper we provide a narrative and integrative review of the conceptual and empirical bases that underpin this framework and highlight implications for knowledge translation and application.

Participation in exercise declines from adolescence to adulthood, yet participation in a diversity of sports during adolescence may protect individuals from this decline. However, the mechanisms that explain the relationship between participation in a diversity of sports during adolescence and exercise behaviour in adulthood have not been identified. Perceptions of variety may help explain this relationship. The purpose of this study was to examine the association between diversity of sport participation in adolescence and exercise behaviour in adulthood, and the extent to which this relationship is explained by perceptions of variety in exercise. Using a cross-sectional design, a community sample of 112 adults (Mage = 37.39 years, SD = 11.10; nfemale = 87) recalled their sport participation throughout adolescence and completed measures of perceived variety in exercise and current exercise behaviour. The results showed that diversity of sport participation did not directly predict exercise behaviour in adulthood but did indirectly through the experience of variety in exercise (point estimate = 0.09, 95%CI = 0.03 – 0.18), after controlling for age and gender (Model R2 = .09). These findings support the notion that participation in a diversity of sports during adolescence is associated with exercise behaviour in adulthood, and the extent to which people feel like they experience variety in exercise may explain this relationship. Diversification of sport participation in adolescence may facilitate perceptions of variety and be one strategy for fostering exercise behaviour in adulthood.

BACKGROUND The purpose of this study was to experimentally examine the extent to which variety support in a resistance exercise program influences exercise-related well-being among inactive adults. METHODS A sample of 121 inactive university students were randomly assigned and participated in either a high or low variety support 6-week exercise program. Measures of exercise-related perceived variety, positive affect, negative affect, and subjective vitality were completed at baseline, after 3 weeks, and after 6 weeks (i.e. post-test). RESULTS Through use of structural equation modelling, the results showed that for those who completed measures at post-test (i.e. n = 55), and for all participants who received variety support (i.e. a modified intention-to-treat analysis; N = 121), exercise-related variety support indirectly explained higher levels of exercise-related positive affect, and subjective vitality, and lower levels of negative affect, through the mediating role of perceived variety. CONCLUSIONS The provision of variety support in a resistance exercise program influences exercise-related well-being through perceptions of variety. Results are discussed in relation to the potential utility of providing variety support to promote exercise-related well-being in people who are physically inactive.