A large body of research has revealed high prevalence of interpersonal violence (e.g., sexual abuse) in sport, which may be greater in young athletes who are more vulnerable to abuse and harassment. Sport leaders have therefore encouraged researchers to identify what best protects athletes and what increases the likelihood of interpersonal violence being reported to a safeguarding officer. Psychological safety has emerged as one factor that may encourage this. We asked 476 competitive athletes (age range = 16 to 59) to complete measures of experience of interpersonal violence, psychological safety and intention to report interpersonal violence to a safeguarding officer. Results revealed a significant indirect (via psychological safety) effect of experience of interpersonal violence on reporting intentions, which was moderated by age. That is, experience of interpersonal violence negatively predicted intention to report interpersonal violence via psychological safety at all three levels of age, with the indirect effect decreasing as age increased. Results of our study highlight that young athletes who experience interpersonal violence, are less likely to feel psychological safe and in turn, report interpersonal violence to a safeguarding officer. For national and international sport organisations, prioritizing feelings of psychological safety is needed to improve the likelihood of athletes reporting interpersonal violence to a safeguarding officer. Given that young athletes may be less likely to report interpersonal violence when feeling psychologically unsafe, emphasis should be placed on creating environments in sports clubs that engender a culture of speaking out about concerns without consequence.

In response to widespread concerns about interpersonal violence towards athletes in sport, the safe sport movement has emerged as a concerted effort to prevent harm and safeguard athlete well-being. Increased attention on safe sport is reflected in the growth of research and the development of education initiatives, policies, and complaint mechanisms. Given the rapid progress in safe sport-related research and initiatives, as well as the complex and multifaceted nature of safe sport issues, a critical look at the field is timely. Using a constructivist lens, we suggest that safe sport is characterized by various ontological, epistemological, and axiological limitations, which encompass conceptual, methodological, and practical shortcomings. This analysis aims to stimulate scholarly discussion and enhance understanding of the complex challenges inherent in safe sport through a critical examination of its shortcomings.

IntroductionPsychological abuse continues to be the most frequently reported type of maltreatment among athletes leading to negative mental health such as low mood and self-esteem, increased anxiety, self-harm, and eating disorders. Preliminary evidence suggests athlete satisfaction can influence the perceived outcomes associated with psychological abuse. Despite its negative impacts on athletes, psychological abuse continues to be justified as a tool to enhance athletic performance.MethodsThis study sought to examine the effects of psychological abuse on athlete satisfaction and mental health indicators of eating disorders and self-harm. Participants consisted of Canadian National Team athletes who completed a survey of maltreatment in sport with items assessing psychological abuse, athlete satisfaction, eating disorder and self harm indicators (n = 794).ResultsResults indicated a negative correlation between psychological abuse and athlete satisfaction, and a positive correlation with eating disorders and self-harm indicators. Additionally, athlete satisfaction was a significant moderator of psychological abuse on eating disorder and self-harm indicators. High athlete satisfaction buffered against the negative effects of psychological abuse on self-harming indicators in non-aesthetic and weight based sport and non-team sport athletes. Conversely, the interaction between athlete satisfaction and psychological abuse was marginally significant in predicting increased negative effects on eating disorders in aesthetic and weight based sport athletes.DiscussionThese findings highlight the detrimental effects psychological abuse can have on athletes in relation to eating disorders and self-harm, and the buffering role of athlete satisfaction on self-harm but not eating disorder indicators in aesthetic and weight based sport athletes. Recommendations include increased attention to preventing psychological abuse in sport.

Positive coaching strategies (e.g., athlete - centred, autonomy - supportive, caring, transformational) have been highly regarded for their holistic approaches in creating supportive sport environments, enhancing motivation, and supporting athlete well - being. Despite calls for more positive approaches to athlete development, there is mounting evidence that high - performance coaches do not embrace these coaching styles, opting for controlling or emotionally abusive coaching styles. While various researchers have argued that a positive sports environment can lead to high - performance outcomes, coaches remain hesitant to change due to a perceived lack of solid evidence directly linking positive coaching methods to improved performance. This study addresses this gap by exploring international medal - winning athletes' and coaches' perspectives of achieving performance results in positive sport environments. Using a constructivist approach, semi - structured interviews were conducted with 24 Olympic and Paralympic athletes (n = 13) and coaches (n = 11) who had won a medal at an Olympic, Paralympic, Pan American Games, or World Championship. Results suggest that medals can be obtained in positive sport environments. Participants reported positive sport experiences also increased positive emotions, motivation, resiliency, feelings of being cared for and valued, personal development, sport - life balance, and staying in sport longer. All of these outcomes further contributed to increased performance results. These findings provide empirical evidence to support previous assertions that positive sport experiences can contribute to high - performance success.

Maltreatment is an umbrella term used to refer to "volitional acts that result in or have the potential to result in physical injuries and/or psychological harm". Fundamental to an understanding of maltreatment is the misuse of power, including acts of commission and acts of omission. Although maltreatment in sport is widely acknowledged, there is limited research to-date addressing the relationships between maltreatment experiences and athlete mental health, which is perplexing, given the burgeoning of scholarship on athlete mental health. This chapter draws connections between existing research related to athletes' experiences of maltreatment and mental health challenges. It focuses on anxiety, depression, eating disorders, and self-harm/suicide ideation since these mental health concerns are commonly reported by athletes. Athletes have often reported experiencing anxiety, depression, and burnout during their careers. Eating disorders are another frequently reported mental health challenge in sport and tend to be more prominent in athletes than the general population, particularly for women involved in aesthetic sports.

Following the abuse perpetrated by former USA Gymnastics team doctor, Larry Nassar, and the subsequent documentary about the case, Athlete A, gymnasts from around the world turned to social media to share their experiences of maltreatment, using the hashtag #gymnastalliance. The purpose of this study was to explore how the gymnast alliance hashtag has been used on Instagram. A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted by examining the text and images included in 557 Instagram posts that employed the hashtag. The generated themes included: redress previous silencing, disclosing experiences of maltreatment and their impacts, calling for change, and building a community of support. Findings from the analysis are interpreted using athlete advocacy, maltreatment, safeguarding, and information communication and technology literature. Recommendations are posed for future research and practices to improve safe and accessible disclosure and reporting processes for athletes.

This chapter discusses sexual abuse in sport and implications for human rights and social justice. It will focus on sports autonomy and violation of human rights, history of safeguarding and safeguarding approaches, moving forward from a human rights approach, and by way of conclusion, call to action.

Millions of girls and young women participate in organized sports annually as a vehicle for developing a strong sense of self, social bonds, a positive body image and a sense of agency. Although the benefits of sport engagement are experienced by many girls, the overwhelming evidence of experiences of gender-based violence in sport cannot be ignored (e.g., USA Gymnastics, Hockey Canada). This paper will address gender-based violence experienced by adolescents in sport with a focus on psychological violence. The literature is replete with evidence that girls experience higher rates of gender-based psychological violence in sport than boys, and as a result, incur developmental costs. Psychological violence is experienced by girls in sport in the form of demeaning comments, body shaming, inequitable media coverage and funding and the ongoing policing of women’s bodies in sport through sexualized sport attire and physiological testing. The causes and effects of psychological violence will be addressed along with recommendations to prevent and address gender-based violence in sport.

This study explored the relationships between athletes' experiences of maltreatment and mental health indicators. Canadian National Team athletes completed an online, anonymous survey that assessed reported experiences of maltreatment (psychological, physical, sexual harm and neglect), and mental health indicators of well-being, eating disorders and self-harming behaviours. All forms of maltreatment had a significant, positive correlation with eating disorder and self-harming behaviours, and a negative correlation with well-being. The relationships between maltreatment and mental health indicators differed based on identity characteristics of the athletes. Further work is needed on the prevention and intervention of maltreatment in sport to reduce the behaviours associated with negative health outcomes.

Resistance training is an important component of exercise that has widespread positive distinct health benefits. However, studies examining exercise motivation typically assess general forms of exercise, thus unable to identify motivational distinctions between aerobic and resistance training. Three studies were conducted to explore the distinction between exercise modalities and to examine the extent to which behavioural regulations for resistance training relate to behaviour and strength outcomes. In Study 1 participants (N = 148) completed questionnaires assessing which exercise modalities were considered by the word "exercise". In Study 2 participants (N = 216) completed questionnaires assessing aerobic and resistance training motivation and behaviour. In Study 3 participants (N = 100) completed measures of resistance training motivation and behaviour, as well as upper and lower body strength tests. In Study 1, we observed bias in participants understanding of the term "exercise", whereby exercise is conflated with aerobic training. In Study 2, compared to general exercise motivation, resistance training motivation was more strongly correlated with resistance training behaviour. Finally, Study 3 demonstrated that more self-determined regulations for resistance training were positively correlated to resistance training behaviour and objective assessments of physical strength. Consistent with the tenets of Self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation for resistance training was the strongest predictor of physical strength outcomes. Overall, results indicate the efficacy in specifying resistance training motivation when developing research and/or exercise interventions targeting motivational influences.

Despite sport being a vehicle through which youth may achieve positive developmental outcomes, maltreatment in the youth sport context remains a significant concern. With increased athlete advocacy and research demonstrating the high prevalence of maltreatment in sport, and the urgent need to address it, many international organisations have created child protection in sport initiatives. Of particular focus to athletes and researchers is the provision of evidence-based comprehensive education and independent reporting mechanisms for athletes who experience harm. The current study examined the extent to which the publicly accessible information provided by three sport-specific child protection organisations regarding education and reporting is aligned with recommendations provided by researchers and athletes. With regard to education, the findings highlight accessibility, programming for various stakeholders, and coverage of topics of interest (e.g., forms of harm and reporting processes). However, educational information about equity, diversity, and inclusion and information on how to foster positive environments in sport was lacking. For reporting mechanisms, results showed that each organisation’s approach to receiving reports of maltreatment varied, including their ability to directly intake, investigate, and sanction instances of maltreatment. The findings are interpreted and critiqued considering previous literature and recommendations for future research and practice are suggested.

In this study, we explored the experiences of body shaming as a form of emotional abuse and the effects of these experiences. The reported findings represent a secondary analysis conducted of data gleaned from a study exploring the long-term effects of emotional abuse of 8 female National Team athletes in aesthetic sports. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with the athletes and analysed from a constructivist lens. The athletes indicated that they experienced negative verbal comments about their bodies, body monitoring, forced restrictions of food and water, public criticism of the body, and punishment when body-related standards were not met. Athletes discussed the effects of these experiences, which included normalisation, social comparison, extreme weight control methods, negative health outcomes, performance decrements, and decreased enjoyment. These findings are interpreted to suggest that the coaches' actions to monitor and control the athletes' weight constitute body shaming practices and that body-related shaming should be considered a form of emotional abuse.

This study assessed the prevalence of maltreatment experienced by Canadian National Team athletes. In total, 995 athletes participated in this study, including current athletes and athletes who had retired in the past 10 years. An anonymous online survey was administered, consisting of questions about experiences of psychological, physical, and sexual harm, and neglect, as well as questions about identity characteristics, when the harm was experienced, and who perpetrated the harm. Neglect and psychological harm were most frequently reported, followed by sexual harm and physical harm. Female athletes reported significantly more experiences of all forms of harm. Retired athletes reported significantly more neglect and physical harm. Athletes reportedly experienced more harmful behaviors during their time on the national team than before joining a national team. Coaches were the most common perpetrators of all harms except for sexual harm, which was most frequently perpetrated by peers. This study highlighted the prevalence with which Canadian National Team athletes reportedly experience harmful behaviors in sport, suggesting the need for preventative and intervention initiatives.

Disclosures of abuse by athletes have heightened public and scholarly attention recently. The high-profile cases of Nassar in USA Gymnastics, and Bennell of UK Football, are two of many examples of abuse that have been allowed to perpetuate across years and hundreds of young victims. This chapter focuses on experiences of emotional abuse drawing upon data collected and analysed for the paper, "It was the Worst Time in my Life: The Effects of Emotionally Abusive Coaching on Female Canadian National Team Athletes" published in Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal. Female athletes were chosen because of the higher prevalence rates of emotional abuse reported among female compared with male athletes. Elite, retired athletes were the focus given the evidence indicating that experiences of emotional abuse increase with competitive level, and reflections about emotionally abusive experiences deepen upon retirement when athletes are out of the sport context.

With increased media scrutiny, public awareness, and research on the prevalence of maltreatment experiences in sport, sport organizations have faced increased pressures to combat unsafe practices in sport. A consequence has been the emergence of the Safe Sport movement whereby organizations including the International Olympic Committee, Safe Sport International, US Center for SafeSport, Sport Canada, and others, have developed policies, initiatives, and education intended to create safer sport environments for all participants. Most of these policies have been implemented using a top-down approach, driven by government officials and sport leaders. However, if safe sport initiatives are to benefit athletes, consideration and incorporation of athletes' perspectives in the development and implementation of initiatives are imperative. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine athletes' perspectives on the challenges and recommendations to advancing safe sport. As part of a large-scale survey of current and retired Canadian National Team Athletes' experiences of maltreatment, open-ended questions were asked about athletes' recommendations and considerations for safe sport. Responses to these questions (n = 386) were analyzed using thematic analysis. According to the participants, barriers and challenges to safe sport included emphasizing performance excellence at-all-costs, normalization and complicity of harm, lack of attention to equity, diversity and inclusion, a culture of fear and silence, and a lack of trust in organizations to handle cases of harm. In an effort to advance safe sport, participants recommended prioritizing holistic athlete development, improving and strengthening accountability measures, implementing an independent 3rd party for disclosure, reporting and support, increased attention to equity, diversity and inclusion, stakeholder education, prohibition of sexual relations between athletes and those in positions of power and authority, and adoption of a broader perspective of harms and perpetrators. Findings are interpreted and critiqued in light of previous literature and recommendations for future research and practice are suggested.

A substantial body of work exists on the nature of effective coach-athlete relationships generally and in women’s artistic gymnastics specifically. Commonly cited qualities of healthy coach-athlete relationships include closeness, commitment, complementarity, and co-orientation, referred to as the 3C +1 model developed by Jowett and colleagues (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003; Jowett, 2005, 2007). While the 3C +1 model of coach-athlete relationships has been validated through numerous studies, it is curious that these same qualities also arise in studies of athlete maltreatment within the coach-athlete relationship. Female artistic gymnasts have described their relationships with their sexually and emotionally abusive coaches as being characterised by trust, liking (and in some cases, loving), collaboration, and a commitment to common goals – the same qualities used to characterise effective relationships. This chapter will explore this contradiction and ways in which effective coach-athlete relationships may be developed and maintained with a priority of preventing athlete maltreatment.