Using the taxonomy of personal benefits attributed to wilderness and developed for the 1985 national wilderness conference, this paper summarizes the research since published on the benefits of nonfacilitated uses of wilderness. It describes recent developments in theory and methods regarding leisure experiences and discusses the implications of these developments for understanding wilderness benefits. The paper proposes that results of research on the benefits of wilderness can facilitate an outcome-focused approach to wilderness management.

One approach to studying the motivations for leisure is to focus on the desired goal states that are attained through participation in leisure. The Recreation Experience Preference (REP) scales were developed for measuring these goal states. In an attempt to provide a summary integrative analysis of the structure of the REP scales, the present study conducted a meta-analysis of 36 studies that have used REP items. The studies were used to obtain population estimates of correlations between scale item pairs. Correlations were then used as input to confirmatory factor analysis that tested the structure of domains (item group ings that represent a broad goal construct) and the structure of scales (within-domain item groupings that represent dimensions of the broader goal construct) established in previous research. Results provided support for the a priori domain and scale structures. Inter-item correlations were computed for do- mains and scales and compared ''within'' and ''between'' clusters. The results show high average inter-item correlations within scales and domains and relatively low average correlations between domains and scales. Variability of interitem domain correlations due to response scale, instruction set, geographic location of study, and type of recreation area visited was tested. Overall consistency in domains and stales was shown. Recommendations are made to help assure appropriate applications and advance refinement of the REP scales.

Sets of 16 beliefs about the consequences of each of 6 leisure activities were selected in a pilot study by means of free elicitation. The beliefs varied in salience (salient vs. nonsalient), valence (positive vs. negative), and type (instrumental vs. effective). In the main study, 69 college students expressed their agreements with each belief, evaluated the consequences involved in the beliefs, and rated each leisure activity on 4 evaluative scales as a standard measure of attitude. The latencies of these responses were used to assess accessibilities of beliefs and attitudes in an effort to quantify degree of salience. Accessibility of beliefs was found to increase significantly with frequency of elicitation in the pilot study (salience) and with the judged favorability of the consequences. Salience was further found to be related to degree and extremity of agreement. Accessibility was also found to moderate the correlation between beliefs and attitudes posited in the expectancy-value model of attitude. The correlation between a given belief and the direct attitude measure increased with the beliefs accessibility, and the correlation between a measure of attitude based on the set of salient beliefs and the standard attitude measures increased with the accessibility of the attitude. Implications for the identification and measurement of perceived benefits and costs of leisure are discussed.

Forty-four college students without disabilities each recalled a stimulating recreation experience, a relaxing recreation experience, and a distressful exam experience. Measures of heart rate, pulse volume, and skin conductance were continuously recorded during 3 minutes of mental recollection and during 1 minute of verbal recollection. Overall, verbal recollections produced a much greater sympathetic response than mental recollections. However, significant interactions suggest this is not independent of the type of experience recalled: a much greater sympathetic response was associated with the stimulating and distressful recollections than for the relaxing recollection. Support for both a situational response specificity and an individual response specificity was found. Evidence of how the two types of recreational reminiscence can be applied in therapeutic situations is examined.

The role of beliefs in attitude formation and the impact of commitment to an attitude on its predictive validity were studied in the context of anti‐abortion attitudes. Undergraduates (N= 152), identified as pro‐choice or pro‐life, expressed their beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and restriction preferences with respect to making abortion illegal. In addition, they indicated their commitment to their positions and their willingness to distribute a pro‐ or anti‐abortion petition. Salient beliefs—identified in a pilot study—were found to predict attitudes, intentions, restriction preferences, and petition choice significantly better than nonsalient beliefs. Salient beliefs also discriminated significantly between pro‐choice and pro‐life respondents, providing useful information about the cognitive underpinnings of anti‐abortion attitudes. In addition, accuracy of predictions increased significantly with commitment, even when attitude extremity was statistically controlled. These findings support the summation theory of attitude (Fishbein, 1963) and demonstrate the importance of attitude strength in determining the structure and predictive validity of attitudes.

A laboratory experiment to examine psychophysiological responses associated with the recollections of outdoor recreation experiences was conducted. Forty-four subjects (41% female, mean age of total sample = 25.2 years) recalled an active and passive outdoor recreation experience and a negative stressful (exam) experience. Recollections were compared on physiological responses (heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and skin conductance) and psychological responses (negative and positive affect) using a repeated measures design. Overall, physiological activation was greatest for exam and active recollections, positive mood was highest for active recollections, and negative mood was lowest for passive recollections. Results were interpreted within the framework of arousal theory. Implications for theoretical, applied and method issues in outdoor recreation research are discussed.

The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1987) is used to predict leisure intentions and behavior. College students completed a questionnaire that measured involvement, moods, attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and intentions concerning five leisure activities: spending time at the beach, jogging or running, mountain climbing, boating, and biking. One year later the participants reported how often they had performed these behaviors during the preceding year. Between- and within-subjects analyses showed that attitudes toward leisure activities consist of affective and instrumental components, and that reported mood correlates with the former but not the latter. Consistent with the theory, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control predicted leisure intentions (R =.50 to.86), and intentions and perceived control predicted leisure behavior (R =.48 to.78). Contrary to expectations, involvement did not affect accuracy of prediction. It is concluded that the theory of planned behavior can advance our understanding of leisure activities.