Volcanic environments illustrate how human communities have learned to persist within dynamic, hazardous landscapes by balancing risk and opportunity. Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy)-one of the world's most active volcanoes-provides an outstanding natural laboratory to investigate the interplay between geodynamic and volcanic processes as well as human adaptation. The site of Santa Venera al Pozzo (SVP) exemplifies this duality: archaeological and geological evidence reveal a persistent human presence since the Late Neolithic, sustained by fault-controlled hydrothermal discharge and a geomorphological position that ensured long-term stability outside major lava flow pathways. This study integrates geological, geochemical, geodetic, seismological, and archaeological data to examine how tectonic and magmatic processes sustained hydrothermal activity and supported enduring settlement. Results indicate that (i) deformation was largely accommodated by creeping faults, in turn enhancing permeability and maintaining spring discharge; (ii) the site's distal position from eruptive rift zones provided geomorphological stability; and (iii) cultural practices promoted the adaptive reuse of geothermal resources over the time. The case of SVP demonstrates that the same Earth processes generating hazards also maintain vital resources, enabling long-term human resilience. This integrated geological-archaeological perspective provides a transferable framework for understanding sustainability and risk in volcanically active regions worldwide.

The transformation of Segesta, from the Hellenistic period (sixth century BCE) to the early Middle Ages (fifth–sixth century CE), has been extensively studied by archaeologists and historians. While social and political changes were the main drivers of urban evolution, practices such as abandonment, spoliation, and building transformations increased buildings’ structural vulnerability, making them more prone to seismic damage. Although historical sources from the Roman period do not mention any earthquakes affecting Segesta, recent archaeological investigations have revealed collapsed layers in the Agora and Mango Sanctuary, and structural deformations in the Theater and Doric Temple. Furthermore, architectural analysis indicates the use of anti-seismic construction techniques in at least two structures on the site. Through multidisciplinary archaeoseismological investigations, this study aims to: (i) provide evidence of past earthquakes based on recent excavations literature review, and on-site observations; (ii) explain, through local site-effects, the selective collapse observed in the Agora and Mango Sanctuary, as well as the deformations at the Theater and Doric Temple; and (iii) analyze the seismotectonic framework of the potential seismic sources. To achieve these objectives, the study combines architectural damage surveys, stratigraphic analysis, drone-based photogrammetry, and non-invasive geophysical prospection (HVSR and MASW). This integrated approach enables a quantitative reconstruction of the local seismic response and deformation patterns across the site, while supporting a replicable framework for investigating ancient seismicity in similarly complex archaeological landscapes. These findings highlight a previously unrecognized gap in the seismic history of this low tectonic strain rate region, pointing to the occurrence of significant past earthquakes that are absent from historical records and current seismic catalogs—which, for this area, list only the 1968 Belice Valley sequence. Therefore, this study contributes essential input data for refining the seismic hazard and enhances our understanding of the historical seismicity and regional seismic risk.

Misterbianco, located on the southern slope of Mt. Etna (eastern Sicily), was destroyed in the past by two catastrophic events that raised the old town to the ground. The first was the great eruption of 1669, whose lava front buried dozens of villages encountered along its path, entirely destroying the architectural heritage of Etna's southern flank. The second event was the disastrous 1693 Val di Noto earthquake, which caused major destruction throughout south-eastern Sicily, also damaging the few still standing buildings in the town. The GPR survey performed at this site, 350 years after the eruption, allowed a first attempt of planimetric reconstruction of the San Nicolò Church. Starting from the site history, we present the results of an integrated approach that involves history, volcanology and geophysics aimed at addressing future archaeological excavations for the protection of archaeological and monumental assets in a difficult setting as this volcanic environment.

Archaeoseismological research often deals with two unresolved questions: the magnitude and level of damage caused by past earthquakes, and the precise location of the seismic source. We propose a comprehensive review of an integrated approach that combines site effects with the analysis of geochemical data in the field of archaeoseismology. This approach aims to identify active buried faults potentially related to the causative seismic source and provide insights into earthquake parameters. For each integrated method, we report the foundational principles, delineation of theoretical field procedures, and exemplification through two case studies. Site effects analysis in archaeoseismology assumes a pivotal role in unraveling historical seismic occurrences. It enables estimating the earthquake magnitude, assessing the seismotectonic patterns, and determining the resulting damage level. Valuable data related to earthquake parameters can be extracted by analyzing vibration frequencies and acceleration measurements from structures within archaeological sites. This information is instrumental in characterizing seismic events, evaluating their impact on ancient structures, and enhancing our understanding of earthquake hazards within the archaeological context. Geochemical investigations supply indispensable tools for identifying buried active faults. The analysis of fluids and gases vented in proximity to faults yields valuable insights into their nature, activity, and underlying mechanisms. Faults often manifest distinctive geochemical imprints, enabling the differentiation between tectonically active and volcanically related fault systems. The presence of specific gases can further serve as indicators of the environmental conditions surrounding these fault networks. Integrating site effects analysis and geochemical investigations within archaeoseismological research is crucial to improving our understanding of unknown past earthquakes. Moreover, it enhances the seismic hazard assessment of the region under study.

The need to study, protect, and conserve archaeological heritage has enhanced the application of geophysical techniques as non-invasive and reliable tools to investigate fragile and valuable assets. This review presents the most popular geophysical techniques suitable for archaeogeophysical investigations, namely, magnetometry, ground penetrating radar, and electrical resistivity tomography, together with a series of multiparametric measures taken from aerial platforms (UAS). For each method, we recall the basic physical principles, illustrate the operative procedures for field investigation, and provide indications about data processing and modeling. We propose a flowchart to address reliable and effective geophysical investigations, from its planning to the development of the final archaeogeophysical model. We underline the integrated approach, in which the combination of various techniques allows the best results in terms of resolution, coverage, investigation depth, speed, and costs to be obtained. We introduce a suite of studied cases in which this approach has been applied successfully.

Near-continuous monitoring both of gas emissions (CO2, CH4 and H2S) and of water temperature at Santa Venera al Pozzo thermal springs (SE foot of Mt. Etna volcano, Sicily, Italy) was conducted from December 2017 to April 2019, using a novel and cheaper Chromatography Monitoring System (CMS) coupled with a water temperature sensor. The results showed methane as predominant gas and temporal changes in gas concentrations that were in part due to daily fluctuations, which caused small amplitude variations, and in part due to non-environmental causes. These latter were correlated with the occurrence of strong earthquakes and slow tectonic events related to magmatic intrusions, but not with input of magmatic gases into the thermal aquifer, given the nonmagmatic origin of all monitored gases. Methane spikes were observed during many volcano-tectonic events and call for a deep source of this gas. H2S was detected only during the strongest local tectonic events, including a Mw 4.9 earthquake, suggesting that this gas has a common origin as CH4 (i.e., mixing between microbial and thermogenic gas), but it is released only when tectonic stress is applied for sufficiently long periods as to cause H2S oversaturation in the hydrothermal aquifer. Water temperature decreases were also observed immediately after the two strongest earthquakes in the area, which helped us produce a comprehensive model to explain the observed geochemical variations. Our approach allowed revealing the great sensitivity of gases such as CH4 and especially H2S to tectonic stress, thus making them valuable indicators of impending strong tectonic or volcano-tectonic events.

In 1669 the most destructive eruption on Etna volcano was recorded since historical times (about 700 BCE), whose lava flow destroyed completely the ancient town of Misterbianco, located on the southern slope of Mount Etna. San Nicola church is one of the three churches that historically were covered by lava flow. In the 1980s, some works for the construction of a parking lot allowed to discover an ancient wall belonging to the church. Some georadar prospections were carried out in the investigated area finalized to reconstruct the planimetric development of the ancient church and to direct future excavation works.

Misterbianco is located on the southern flank of Mt. Etna (Unesco site), in eastern Sicily (Italy). This site, also known as Monasterium Album, has a long and tormented history linked with volcanic activity of Mt. Etna and regional seismicity. This site received much attention in the 2000s when excavation works brought to light a 14th century church remains below the thick layer of the 1669 lava. This study documents the first diagnostic multidisciplinary survey performed at this site 350 years after the eruption: the investigations were performed by using techniques such as ground-penetrating radar, infrared thermography, a terrestrial laser scanner and a drone survey to analyze the site’s topography, to adequately map the hidden structures inside the building and to identify fractures and deformations in the church. Starting from the site history, we present the results of the multidisciplinary approach aimed at reconstructing the historical events that led to the damage in the church.

Seismic refraction, multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW) and ambient noise array measurements using the wireless array analysis (WARAN) system were applied to acquire near-surface profiles of seismic velocities in the Selinunte Archaeological Park. This ancient city is famous for numerous temples, which according to the literature, were destroyed by at least two earthquakes in antiquity. The morphology of the archeological park is affected by two rivers which in combination with the temple remains suggests three study sites. We determined the subsurface velocity at these three locations as essential information for further studies of the response of the temple structures to earthquake ground motions. The stratigraphy of the site indicates that low-velocity layers might exist. Seismic refraction profiles with 69 m spread and 24 geophones were employed during the active seismic experiments. The measured P-wave velocities of the top two layers were used as a constraint during the inversion of dispersion relations from the MASW and WARAN data. The reliability of the velocity profiles was tested by forward calculation of synthetic seismograms. P-wave velocities which were not well constraint throughout the dispersion curve inversions were adjusted through suitable Poisson's ratios based on the well constraint S-velocities. The combined use of the three different kinds of measurements and multi-mode interpretation of the dispersion curves revealed velocity profiles including low-velocity layers which are supported by de-amplification observed in ratios of horizontal and vertical components of noise spectra.

Archaeoseismological evidence of a strong earthquake, which probably occurred a year before the 252 CE Mt. Etna eruption, has been uncovered at Santa Venera al Pozzo site, located near to Acireale, along the lower eastern flank of the volcano. The site, known for its remarkable and peculiar hydrothermal fluids emissions exploited for thermal uses since the Greek and Roman age, has been investigated through a multidisciplinary approach by integrating archaeoseismological observations with geological and geochemical surveys. Analysis of the observed damage and deformation at the site suggest a capable fault zone through the area. Geochemical and geological surveys were performed in and around the site and have revealed anomalies of soil CO2 efflux along an known active fault and likely also along some unmapped hidden faults. The chemical and isotopic composition of the emitted fluids suggests that these have not a volcanic origin, but they could be related with a deep tectonic system. The data presented in this paper suggest the occurrence of both exposed and hidden active faults in the area of Santa Venera al Pozzo, which could be linked to the seismic activity that damaged the historical site.

Integration of archaeoseismic observations, geological and geophysical surveys and a critical review of historical written sources contributed to shed light on the effects of the 847 CE earthquake that struck a large area of southern-central Italy. New archaeoseismic evidence of a strong earthquake which occurred around the middle of the ninth century CE comes from two Medieval archaeological sites along the Volturno Valley, between Campania and Molise regions. Historical documentation and its evidence include the tilting of pillars in the Basilica of Santa Maria near Alvignano (northern Campania region) and a collapsed masonry wall in the Abbey of San Vincenzo al Volturno near Isernia (northern Molise region). At Alvignano, a site so far unrecorded in seismic catalogues for the 847 earthquake, geoelectrical and georadar investigations were used to explore the subsoil and study local site conditions, which could have influenced co-seismic ground motion. Interpretation of geophysical surveys calibrated by stratigraphy of available boreholes document the presence of altered pyroclastic deposits, which likely enhanced site effects at Alvignano. Analysis of damage historical descriptions and of archaeological reports indicates that the 847 seismic event damaged a wide area between Latium, Campania and Molise, with destruction of the town of Isernia and damages in Rome. Because the damaged area for this medieval earthquake is loosely defined in literature, the present study represents a contribution to better define the shaking area and provide new hints on the extent and location of the possible seismogenic source.

Archaeoseismology can provide a useful chronological tool for constraining earthquakes and documenting significant evidence that would otherwise be lost. In this paper, we report a case of surface faulting on ancient man-made structures belonging to the archaeological site of Santa Venera al Pozzo situated along the eastern flank of Mt. Etna volcano in eastern Sicily (southern Italy), which is affected by well-developed tectonic faults. Geological surveys highlight a set of fractures affecting the archaeological ruins, suggesting the occurrence of a capable fault zone across the area. An integrated geophysical survey was carried out in order to identify the main subsurface tectonic discontinuity ascribable to the fault zone. The information derived from different geophysical techniques, such as electrical resistivity tomography, seismic refraction tomography, ground-penetrating radar, and magnetic surveys allowed us to infer that the fractures observed at the surface could have been produced by coseismic rupture. They are conceivably linked to a strong earthquake that probably occurred in the Roman period, around mid-end of the third-century AD; time constraints are inferred through the dating of buildings of the archaeological site.

Kamarina, located in southern Sicily (Italy), was an important Greek colony since its foundation in the sixth century BC. Archaeological excavations, carried out since the twentieth century, uncovered only limited portions of the site so far. Despite the importance of the Greek colony, the presence of remarkable buildings that archaeologists expected to bring to light has not found fully correspondence in the archaeological excavations. Consequently, the integrated geophysical prospection carried out in the study area is aimed to support and address the future archaeological investigations. After the photographic and thermographic survey obtained by an unmanned aerial vehicle, we performed a systematic survey through ground magnetic and GPR methods over an area of 6200m(2). The acquisition procedures have been optimized in order to get the best results combining high resolution and elevated speed of acquisition. The results derived from the three geophysical techniques have been conveniently combined by means of a cluster analysis, allowing us to clearly identify a series of buried archaeological features. Because of their geometrical characteristics, often in good agreement with the spatial arrangement of the archaeological remains at the surface, these buried archaeological features can be interpreted as roads, walls, or buildings foundations in which the various construction phases of the city can be clearly recognized. The integrated approach has proven to be essential for a robust interpretation of the archaeogeophysical investigation.

The question about the existence of an ancient harbour at Catania is a matter of debate between ancient and modern scholars. No decisive information has been found so far, although numerous hypotheses have been proposed in literature. Since the fifth century BC, historians have documented that numerous naval armadas landed in the port of Catania. However, the current morphology of the Catania coastline has not any protected inlet that could have offered a shelter to hundreds of ships. Starting from historiographical descriptions of the Catania harbour and of the different lava flows occurring since 2500 BC, we sought to infer the most probable area of landing. To address this purpose, literary sources and historical iconographic documentation, combined with geological data and archaeological records, were collected and analysed, in order to verify whether historical documents were consistent with the palaeotopography of the area. The analysis suggests that the main harbour of Catania was probably located north-east of the town, between the S. Giovanni Li Cuti inlet and the Ognina bay, before being filled with some medieval lava flows (during 1100–1400 AD). The apparent silence of the local historical sources on the destruction of the port may well be related to the 1169 earthquake that devastated Catania (causing 15,000 fatalities) and a large part of eastern Sicily. It is therefore likely that the few survivors paid little attention to the lava flow invading the harbour.

This paper aims to bring to light the possible linkage between karstic phenomena and the human occupation of the Roman site of Carsulae (Tiber basin, Central Italy). Dolines are a typical morphological expression of karst rocks' dissolution and collapse and, usually, they represent a potential hazard for human activities and, in particular, in the care and maintenance of cultural heritage sites. In this study, we observed that the development of a subsidence doline caused severe damage to some archaeological structures at the Carsulae monumental site. According to the results obtained in our investigation, three sites at least with karst dissolution phenomena in the shallow calcareous tufa layer have been identified. One of them subsided probably in Roman times and produced a sharp deformation of the decumanus. In order to understand the evolution of this territory an integrated geomorphological and geophysical survey was carried out. The combination between the information derived from different geophysical techniques, such as: Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), Frequency-Domain Electromagnetism (FDEM), and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) clearly pointed out that the calcareous tufa layer is characterized by an irregular geometry and this resulted in the investigated area being affected by karst dissolution in several parts.Four boreholes opportunely located, provided direct information about the depth and the alteration of the calcareous tufa basement and precious calibration data for the geophysical methods.This study contributes to improving our knowledge on the evolution of the Carsulae archaeological site providing a new insight into the adaptation of ancient human societies in this problematic territory. (C) 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Seismotectonic activity and slope instability are a permanent threat in the archaeological site of Abakainon and in the nearby village of Tripi in NE Sicily. In recent times, signs of an ancient earthquake have been identified in the necropolis of Abakainon which dating was ascertained to the first century AD earthquake. The site is located on a slope of Peloritani Mts. along the Tindari Fault Line and contains evidence for earthquake-induced landslide, including fallen columns and blocks, horizontal shift and counter slope tilting of the tomb basements. In this paper, we used an integrated geomorphological and geophysical analysis to constrain the landslide. The research was directed to the acquisition of deep geological data for the reconstruction of slope process and the thickness of mobilized materials. The applied geophysical techniques included seismic refraction tomography and electrical resistivity tomography. The surveys were performed to delineate the sliding surface and to assess approximately the thickness of mobilized materials. The geophysical and geomorphologic data confirmed the presence of different overlapped landslides in the studied area. Moreover, a numerical simulation of the slope under seismic loads supports the hypothesis of a mobilization of the landslide mass in case of strong earthquakes (PGA > 0.3 g). However, numerical results highlight that the main cause of destruction for the Abakainon necropolis is the amplification of the seismic waves, occasionally accompanied by surficial sliding.

In the present paper we describe the on-land field operations integrated in the TOMO-ETNA experiment carried out in June-November 2014 at Mt. Etna volcano and surrounding areas. This terrestrial campaign consists in the deployment of 90 short-period portable three-component seismic stations, 17 broadband seismometers and the coordination with 133 permanent seismic station belonging to Italy's Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV). This temporary seismic network recorded active and passive seismic sources. Active seismic sources were generated by an array of air-guns mounted in the Spanish oceanographic vessel "Sarmiento de Gamboa" with a power capacity of up to 5200 cubic inches. In total more than 26,000 shots were fired and more than 450 local and regional earthquakes were recorded. We describe the whole technical procedure followed to guarantee the success of this complex seismic experiment. We started with the description of the location of the potential safety places to deploy the portable network and the products derived from this search (a large document including full characterization of the sites, owners and indication of how to arrive to them). A full technical description of the seismometers and seismic sources is presented. We show how the portable seismic network was deployed, maintained and recovered in different stages. The large international collaboration of this experiment is reflected in the participation of more than 75 researchers, technicians and students from different institutions and countries in the on-land activities. The main objectives of the experiment were achieved with great success.

We present a 1:350,000 high-resolution magnetic anomaly map of Calabria (Southern Italy), obtained by merging the results from two low-altitude aeromagnetic surveys performed in southern and northern Calabria. Magnetic anomalies of Calabria are of low intensity, and mostly range from 11 to –9 nT. Northern Calabria is characterized by positive anomalies in the Tyrrhenian margin (Coastal Chain) that turn into negative values moving eastward in the Sila Massif. Southern Calabria is characterized by slightly positive anomaly values, interrupted by a null magnetic anomaly corridor roughly corresponding to the eastern margin of the Gioia Tauro basin. Finally, anomaly values turn systematically negative in the Messina Straits. Due to the unprecedented resolution (low flying height, spatial sampling along the flight line of ∼5 m and 1–2 km flight line spacing), the new map highlights, in detail, the geometry and setting of the upper crustal features. As Calabria is one of the most seismically active regions in Italy, hit by several high-magnitude earthquakes in recent centuries, the interpretation of this new map will hopefully contribute to new insights into the crustal geological setting, location and dimension of the main seismogenic sources.