Diversified farming systems are often considered more resilient and environmentally sustainable than monocultures. However, their performance on key environmental and economic outcomes remains poorly defined across different contexts. We reviewed the literature and examined data from 277 sites, primarily in New Zealand, regarding the merits of land-use diversification. We tested the hypothesis that nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) losses to freshwater (kg/ha), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and job creation differ between farm and catchment scales and that diversification can reduce these environmental losses. Our findings indicate that, contrary to expectations, N losses were higher in diversified systems compared to monocultures at farm scale, and catchment scale. This increase was largely attributed to land-use changes and cultivation practices. However, the total number of jobs was higher in diversified systems at both scales. Although heavily context-dependent, these observational data provide a rationale to determine the conditions under which diversification can improve environmental and economic outcomes. Beyond biophysical conditions, additional challenges in implementing diversification lie in the phasing and implementation of catchment policies at the farm scale, robust supply and value chains to adapt to market demands, and the need to develop and implement technology fit for varied (and diversified) farm systems.

Surface water bodies connected to the ocean such as estuarine rivers can act as pathways for saltwater intrusion (SI, i.e., the displacement of fresh groundwater by saltwater in an aquifer) far inland of the coast, presenting one of the earliest risks associated with relative sea level rise (SLR). However, SI vulnerability mapping approaches have largely focused on SI from the coast and do not consider estuarine surface water bodies, except for GALDIT-SUSI (Kazakis et al., 2019); a weighted indexing approach designed for regional-scale mapping applications using a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) framework. However, GALDIT-SUSI is subjective in ranking the importance of factors that can contribute to SI and combining these into a vulnerability index. A less subjective approach to assessing SI vulnerability than weighted indexing methods involves the use of physically-based analytic solutions such as Strack (1976), but these have not been applied in a GIS framework or along estuaries and rivers previously. Here, these analytic solutions, surface water salinity, and surface water-groundwater freshwater head gradients are used in the development of a new SI vulnerability tier system. This new approach was applied in the low-lying coastal city of O over bar tautahi Christchurch, Aotearoa New Zealand, along 70 km of coastal, estuary, and river margins under current sea level and SLR using GIS, then compared to GALDIT-SUSI. The main advantage of the SI vulnerability tiers method is that it considers surface water behaviour, e.g., increased saltwater encroachment up rivers under SLR, which exposed new areas of the aquifer to saltwater and increased SI vulnerability upstream. In contrast, GALDIT-SUSI does not consider surface water conditions and accounts for topography and groundwater level as the main SI vulnerability drivers in this application. The SI vulnerability tiers proposed here are more theoretically robust than GALDIT-SUSI and provide a physicallybased, large-scale, relatively low-budget and rapid screening tool to highlight areas most vulnerable to SI under current and future conditions for further monitoring and management; a gap of national and international relevance.

It is critical that we move our understanding of the ecosystem services (ESs) produced by landscapes from the present abundance of analysis to a fundamental basis of design. This involves enhancing the ability to understand and model the interconnected, coevolving system of humans and the rest of nature, thus contributing to the design of sustainable landscapes. In this paper, we hypothesise that the spatial configuration of landscape components (the size and arrangement of tree clumps, paddocks, crops, water features, etc.) impacts the production of regulating ESs, which in turn have a leveraging effect on provisioning and cultural ESs. Drawing on the precepts of Ecological Field Theory, we present the development and implications of a conceptual Geographic Information System (GIS)-based model, ESMAX, that utilises the idiosyncratic distance-decay characteristics of regulating ESs. These ‘ES fields’ are visualised as radiating into the landscape from their source components, addressing a gap in biophysical reality that has been identified as a shortcoming of existing ES modelling based on landcover proxies. Hypothetical landscape arrangements of simplified landscape components are tested with ESMAX across three regulating ESs: cooling effect, nitrogen retention, and habitat provision. The model calculates the overall ES performance of each landscape arrangement by tabulating the ES fields produced and, critically, the nonlinear response where fields overlap. The results indicate a primary sensitivity to the size of components and a secondary sensitivity to the arrangement of components. Consequently, ESMAX can be used to design landscape configurations that (1) maximise the production of specific regulating ESs and (2) improve the utilisation of natural ES-producing resources.

INTRODUCTION:One policy option to reduce the density of tobacco retailers is to restrict the distance retailers can be located to each other. This study examined the impacts of proximity limits of 150 m, 300 m and 450 m between tobacco retailers in New Zealand and if critical threshold reduction in tobacco retailers of 90%-95% would be achieved. METHODS:Using a spatial modelling approach, tobacco retailers were randomly removed based on a minimum distance between retailers until there were zero retailers within each scenario's minimum distance. This was repeated for all three proximity limit scenarios and descriptive statistics are provided for each. RESULTS:Implementation of 150 m, 300 m or 450 m distance restrictions between tobacco retailers would result in an average reduction in availability of 35%, 49% and 58%, respectively. On average, the current median distance to the closest retailer increases from 110 m to 377 m, to 568 m or to 718 m, respectively. The average median distance from a retailer to the closest school also increases across the three proximity limits, from 1017 m to 1087 m, to 1149 m or to 1231 m, respectively. Reduced clustering in deprived areas would be most apparent if a 450 m restriction policy was implemented. CONCLUSIONS:A proximity limit of 450 m would reduce retailers by 58%, but would not reach proposed critical behaviour-change threshold of 90%-95% required to reduce smoking prevalence independently. There is a need for a combination of policies, which focus on promoting equity, to achieve this bold endgame goal.

Detecting change in water quality is key to providing evidence of progress towards meeting water quality objectives. A key measure for detecting change is statistical power. Here we calculate statistical power for all regularly (monthly) monitored streams in New Zealand to test the effectiveness of monitoring for policy that aims to decrease contaminant (phosphorus and nitrogen species, E. coli and visual clarity) concentrations to threshold levels in 5 or 20 years. While > 95% of all monitored sites had sufficient power and samples to detect change in nutrients and clarity over 20 years, on average, sampling frequency would have to double to detect changes in E. coli. Furthermore, to detect changes in 5 years, sampling for clarity, dissolved reactive phosphorus and E. coli would have to increase up to fivefold. The cost of sampling was predicted to increase 5.3 and 4.1 times for 5 and 20 years, respectively. A national model of statistical power was used to demonstrate that a similar number of samples (and cost) would be required for any new monitoring sites. Our work suggests that demonstrating the outcomes of implementing policy for water quality improvement may not occur without a step change in investment into monitoring systems. Emerging sampling technologies have potential to reduce the cost, but existing monitoring networks may also have to be rationalised to provide evidence that water quality is meeting objectives. Our study has important implications for investment decisions involving balancing the need for intensively sampled sites where changes in water quality occur rapidly versus other sites which provide long-term time series.

Estuarine rivers provide critical pathways for seawater to travel upstream of the coast and salinize adjacent aquifers. However, this salinization mechanism (forthwith termed riparian saltwater intrusion) has received relatively little attention compared to saltwater intrusion (SI) at the coast. Time series measurements of river and groundwater freshwater head and specific conductance (SC), as well as horizontal river-aquifer hydraulic gradient were collected at transects of piezometers perpendicular to an estuarine river in Otautahi Christchurch, Aotearoa New Zealand. The uncertainties of freshwater head and hydraulic gradient were estimated using error propagation methods. Discrete Fourier Transforms were applied to river and groundwater freshwater head and SC time series data, which confirmed the tidal influence in both systems. Cross-correlation analyses of river and groundwater freshwater heads showed very strong relationships with varying time lags. Hydraulic gradients and river SC fluctuated with tides, resulting in the alternation of SI (increase in groundwater SC) and saltwater retreat (decrease in groundwater SC) with various time delays that may be driven by cyclic flow processes. While riparian SI occurred in most piezometers, the hydraulic gradient on the outside of the river meander was steeper than on the inside of the river meander resulting in less SI. Although positive hydraulic gradient (aquifer to river flow direction) occurred most of the time at all sites, land subsidence and climate change conditions of sea-level rise, increased drought, and decreased river flows could increase the occurrence of negative hydraulic gradient, which may result in increased groundwater salinization.

Marginal hill farmland is a key target for the restoration of temperate indigenous forest, which can help mitigate climate change and biodiversity loss. Reliance on natural regeneration and minimum interference management (MIM) is a low‐cost restoration strategy for farmers, with the transition from pasture to woody scrub vegetation (whether indigenous or exotic) an important early successional phase. However, few studies have determined the key factors that influence the regeneration of woody vegetation on pastoral farmland, nor the rate at which regeneration occurs. Using a geospatial analysis of a New Zealand pastoral hill farm subject to variable grazing and MIM, this study found that only 3.8% of grassland experienced detectable regeneration of woody vegetation over 16 years. The key factor influencing natural regeneration was proximity to existing woody vegetation, with the probability of regeneration decreasing as distance increased. Cattle grazing had a significant negative impact, with regeneration more likely to occur in areas free from cattle. Sheep grazing exhibited no significant positive or negative relationship with regeneration. To support natural regeneration of woody vegetation, landowners should prioritize areas with a higher presence of existing woody vegetation and exclude cattle. To increase the rate of regeneration, landowners should consider active management regimes and supplemental restoration strategies, such as applied nucleation and the introduction of nurse species. Given the increased cost and complexity of such approaches, effective government incentive programmes may be needed to provide landowners with financial support and expertise.

The re-integration of native woody vegetation within agricultural areas has the potential to support multifunctional productive landscapes that enhance livestock welfare and restore habitat for native wildlife. As there is minimal research on this issue in Aotearoa New Zealand, this study aimed to identify species of native woody vegetation and propose spatial configurations and site designs to increase multifunctionality on a case study site. The three components of a multifunctional agricultural landscape focused on in this study were (1) enhancing foraging opportunities for livestock, (2) optimizing shade and shelter, and (3) establishing native bush bird habitat. During the first phase, sixty-three suitable species were identified and assigned scores based on the primary objectives and site constraints. This produced four optimized plant lists, one each for the three multifunctional components identified above and one combined multifunctional list incorporating those scores with additional environment and soil scores. The second phase used design thinking methodology to strategically locate these plants within an established case study site. Nine different planting configurations (three for each multifunctional component) were proposed and then, informed by site-specific opportunities and constraints, located on the case study site to produce three individual site designs. Finally, these three site designs were combined to propose an exemplar of a multifunctional agricultural landscape. The results indicate that reintegrating native woody vegetation has the potential to contribute toward multifunctional agricultural landscapes, proposing species and spatial layouts from which further investigation into livestock foraging, increased shade and shelter, and restoration of bush bird habitat can follow. This research advances sustainable land management practices by offering valuable insights into future agricultural landscape design.

A spatial modelling approach was used to explore how a proximity limit (150 m, 300 m, and 450 m) between tobacco retailers may impact different neighbourhoods in New Zealand. Neighbourhoods were categorised into three density groups (0, 1-2, 3+ retailers). As the proximity limit increases, there is a progressive redistribution of neighbourhoods in the three density groups with, the 3+ density group incorporating fewer neighbourhoods and the 0 and 1-2 density groups conversely each consisting of more. The differing measures available at the neighbourhood level enabled our study to discern potential inequities. More directed policies targeting these inequities are needed.

Shallow groundwater quality and level across the low-lying coastal city of Christchurch, New Zealand were surveyed at a high spatial resolution (1.3 piezometers/km2) in the spring of 2020. The groundwater quality parameters recorded across 99 piezometers include specific conductance, temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen, following the pumping of approximately three bore volumes. Additionally, 27 out of 99 piezometers were analysed for chloride concentration and alkalinity as calcium carbonate. This dataset is useful to explore shallow groundwater conditions and how these might impact co-existing subsurface infrastructure and ecosystems. Furthermore, this dataset provides a valuable point of comparison against future changes, for example due to increased seawater intrusion, pollution events, or groundwater level rise.

Study region: Christchurch, New Zealand. Study focus: Low-lying coastal cities worldwide are vulnerable to shallow groundwater salinization caused by saltwater intrusion and anthropogenic activities. Shallow groundwater salinization can have cascading negative impacts on municipal assets, but this is rarely considered compared to impacts of salinization on water supply. Here, shallow groundwater salinity was sampled at high spatial resolution (1.3 piezometer/km(2)), then mapped and spatially interpolated. This was possible due to a uniquely extensive set of shallow piezometers installed in response to the 2010-11 Canterbury Earthquake Sequence to assess liquefaction risk. The municipal assets located within the brackish groundwater areas were highlighted. New hydrological insights for the region: Brackish groundwater areas were centred on a spit of coastal sand dunes and inside the meander of a tidal river with poorly drained soils. The municipal assets located within these areas include: (i) wastewater and stormwater pipes constructed from steel-reinforced concrete, which, if damaged, are vulnerable to premature failure when exposed to chloride underwater, and (ii) 41 parks and reserves totalling 236 ha, within which salt-intolerant groundwater-dependent species are at risk. This research highlights the importance of determining areas of saline shallow groundwater in low-lying coastal urban settings and the co-located municipal assets to allow the prioritisation of sites for future monitoring and management.

Stormwater control measures (SCMs) are essential to manage runoff in urban areas. Mussel shell waste has been recently proposed as sustainable treatment media in SCM to remove metals from runoff. In this study, a group of laboratory-scale column experiments were conducted to investigate the use of crushed mussel shell waste to remove dissolved zinc from actual roof runoff during different filtration flow rates (1, 3, 5, 10 L/min). Heat-treated mussel shells (TMS) and untreated mussel shells (UTMS) were utilized as treatment media with two column depths (1.0 m and 0.8 m). The microstructures and chemical characteristics of TMS and UTMS were examined by using a group of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) tests before and after the filtration process, and water samples were analyzed by using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) instrument. TMS and UTMS showed consistent high removal efficiency for dissolved zinc with (>98%) efficiency during 1 L/min filtration rate. The average removal performance was estimated at >94% and >82% for the 1.0 m and 0.8 m column depths of TMS media, and >92% and >72% for the 1.0 m and 0.8 m depths of UTMS media, respectively. The heat treatment improved the removal of zinc with significant statistical difference (i.e. p < 0.05) during short contact times (0.8 m depth, and high filtration rates). Mussel shell waste showed practical removal performance of zinc even during high filtration rates (>5 L/min). Mussel shell waste showed potential benefits as a sustainable and cost-effective filtration media for removal of dissolved zinc in future stormwater systems.

Agent-based and GIS-based models of human-elephant interactions were developed and integrated to evaluate and recommend the best management mitigation strategies to either reduce or eradicate the adverse impacts of human-elephant interactions in the Bunda District, Tanzania. The model estimated the appropriate minimum elephant and human populations, and geographical distances from the edges of protected areas, rivers and conservation corridors. The model results from each modelling scenario were analysed for comparative performance, where minimal recorded incidents of crop damage, human deaths, elephant deaths, and hidden impacts were the primary focus. Selection of the best performing scenario based on the magnitude of the reduction and eradication of adverse impact(s). However, for each selection of the best scenario(s), there were costs that a model user must incur, as there was no cost-free scenario. Reduction of any of the adverse impacts may run counter to fiscal, conservation, land and socioeconomic policies. Therefore, the model user may select the best scenario within the constraints of these policies. It is recommended that the adoption of the best scenario should not rely solely on the type of adverse impacts but also tolerance and resilience level of elephants and the well-being of the affected people. Therefore, the capabilities of people, elephants, and conservationists to accept, tolerate and, ultimately, to recover from a certain level o

OBJECTIVE:To examine the potential impact of tobacco being available only from pharmacies, only from liquor stores or only from petrol stations on the New Zealand tobacco retail landscape.METHODS:Tobacco retailers and pharmacies were mapped using GIS. Comparisons were made between tobacco retailers and pharmacies. Simple linear regression was used to assess the relationship between outlet types and deprivation.RESULTS:A total of 5,243 tobacco outlets, including liquor stores and petrol stations, and 1,035 pharmacies were identified. The density of all outlets was greater in areas of higher deprivation. The majority of tobacco retailers and pharmacies were located in urban areas. Outlets were mapped in relation to walking distances from secondary schools; significant differences between outlet types are presented.CONCLUSIONS:The policy options examined in this study would considerably reduce the overall availability of tobacco, decrease cues to smoke and reduce the density of tobacco sales around schools. However, inequities in availability would exist with access to tobacco in rural areas disproportionately reduced, and a positive sociodemographic gradient remaining. Implications for public health: Substantially reducing tobacco availability has been identified as a crucial tobacco control strategy. This study provides information on the impact of different policy options to support Smokefree 2025.

We analysed local people’s opinions to understand their knowledge on the magnitude, incidence, adverse impacts and techniques for minimizing the adverse impacts of human-interactions in the Bunda district. The survey involved 130 local people from 12 villages for survey and interviews. The survey used a purposive sampling technique to locate local people with relevant knowledge on human-elephant interactions occurrences. Researchers are grateful to incorporate local people’s opinions into this study because their consolidated knowledge and skills, have for centuries, contributed to undisputed scientific knowledge in environmental conservation. In this study, researchers have learnt that crop damage was the main adverse impacts of human-elephant interactions while house damage was the least recorded incident. Despite crop damage being the most common impact of human-elephant interactions but hidden impacts are the largest adverse impacts. The majority of locals use traditional techniques to prevent and control problem elephants. However, the habituation of elephants to the techniques hinders their effectiveness.

Background: Reducing the retail availability of tobacco has been proposed as a component of tobacco endgame, yet it is not known whether retail availability has a direct impact on smoking behaviours. A narrative review and a meta-analysis have been undertaken to examine the density and proximity of tobacco retail outlets, but were limited in scope, exposure and outcome variables. The aim of this current study was to undertake a systematic review of the international literature on the density and proximity of tobacco retail outlets to homes, schools and communities and their association with smoking behaviours among youth. Methods: We reviewed and critically appraised the evidence documenting the association between density or proximity of tobacco retail outlets and smoking behaviours among school-age youth (18 and under), between 1 January 1990 and 21 October 2019. We reviewed original quantitative research that examined the associations of tobacco retail outlet density and proximity with individual smoking status or population-level smoking prevalence; initiation of smoking; frequency of tobacco use; sales to minors; purchasing by minors; susceptibility to smoking among non-smokers; perceived prevalence of smoking, and quitting behaviours. Findings: Thirty-five peer-reviewed papers met the inclusion criteria. This review provided evidence of a relationship between density of tobacco retail outlets and smoking behaviours, particularly for the density near youths' home. A study using activity spaces also found a significant positive association between exposure to tobacco retail outlets and daily tobacco use. The review did not provide evidence of an association between the proximity of tobacco retail outlets to homes or schools and smoking behaviours among youth. Conclusions: The existing evidence supports a positive association between tobacco retail outlet density and smoking behaviours among youth, particularly for the density near youths' home. This review provides evidence for the development and implementation of policies to reduce the density of tobacco retail outlets to reduce smoking prevalence among youth.

study was conducted in Bunda district, which is a Tanzanian community with high annual incidents of human-elephant interactions, to determine a geographical configuration of hidden impacts. These are indirect impacts and largely unreported adverse effects resulting from human and elephant interactions. These are the effects which usually go unnoticed and unreported due to the lack of visible damage. Spatial analyses of patterns of human-elephant interactions have focused on environmental to socio-economic perspectives rather than spatial aspects of hidden patterns. The study analyzed the distribution, proximity to protected areas, kernel density and hotspots analysis of hidden impacts. The study identified 327 hidden impacts, categorized into the abandonment of farms, marriage problems, delayed school attendances and restriction on movement. It ascertained the highest number of incidents (18.35%) from Kihumbu village and the lowest from Nyangere village (0.01%). Abandonment of farms constituted the largest number (77.4%) while marriage problems formed the lowest number (0.6%) of hidden impacts. The most hidden impacts occurred between 0 and 2000 meters from the boundaries of protected areas. There was a higher concentration of hidden impacts in villages bordering Grumeti Game Reserve than Serengeti National Park. The significant statistical level of adverse hidden impacts occurred in Kihumbu village. Imprecisely execution of tourist hunting operations could presumably be the causing factor for the high concentration of hidden effects nearby Grumeti Game Reserve. However, we recommend a comprehensive study for an intensive understanding of the spatial characteristics of other types of hidden impacts adjacent to protected areas.

Tokaroa Farm is a 608-ha sheep and beef farm, in the Wairarapa. Paddock slopes range from flat to steep (>25°) with a predominance of gentler north facing slopes and steeper south facing slopes. Annual rainfall is 810 mm and average summer dry is three months. Resident subterranean (sub) clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.) populations were identified on an uncultivatable north-west facing hill slope in 2015, and a management plan devised to increase its contribution to pastures. Exclosure plots showed that an eight-week spell in spring 2016 increased resident sub clover groundcover from 13 to 54%, while in the lightly grazed paddock control sub clover increased from 10 to 28%. There was a positive linear relationship (R2=0.51) between the total number of established sub clover seedlings on 30 March 2017 and the previous spring sub clover groundcover (%) on 25 November 2016. In October 2017, the effect of the spring 2016 exclosure treatments was still evident with 57% sub clover groundcover in the eight-week spelled areas compared with 37% in the control despite all the exclosures being grazed in 2017.Sub clover management strategies were developed, using slope and aspect, and applied to a GIS map of Tokaroa Farm. This suggested that 53% of the farm could have sub clover overdrilled into it and 29% could have the resident sub clover population actively managed and/or oversown with sub clover seed.