Robust hazard assessment at dormant stratovolcanoes requires high-resolution eruption chronologies, yet these are often limited by incomplete proximal deposits and poorly constrained ages. Speleothems can preserve tephra particles and volcanogenic trace element signals datable using high-precision 230Th/U chronologies. However, accurate eruption timings are affected by transfer delays of volcanogenic signals in distal cave systems beneath thick epikarst. Here, we investigate Late Holocene (1094 AD–recent) stalagmites from a shallow cave proximal to Taranaki volcano (New Zealand), where cave geometry and location along the primary tephra dispersal axis provide an opportunity to test whether primary tephra preservation improves reconstruction of eruption timing and duration. Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy mapping of Si, K, and Ti identified several particle-rich layers, of which two comprise pristine tephra based on clustered glass and titanomagnetite compositions as well as grain morphologies indicating narrow grain-size distributions and increased particle angularity. These incorporated tephra particles correspond to the Te Popo and Burrell episodes and were dated using 230Th/U at 1196 AD ± 31 and 1568 AD ± 41, respectively. Each tephra layer comprises three distinct tephra-rich laminae, indicating multiple eruption pulses. Growth rates across tephra-bearing laminae indicate eruptive pulses lasted several months and were separated by short repose periods, suggesting that each episode lasted around 2.5 years. Particle-rich layers deposited in the late nineteenth–twentieth centuries contain non-volcanic detritus and heterogeneous grains, consistent with dust and soil-derived material mobilised during landscape modification. These results demonstrate that proximal speleothems can be used to improve volcanic hazard assessments by providing precise information on the timing and duration of volcanic eruptions.

In the last decade the international push for the development of various renewable energy and the increase of the carbon tax for emitters, has put high enthalpy geothermal on a hot seat. Anthropic geothermal emissions in volcanic areas are not negligible due to the inherent nature of their volcanic setting but are counted regardless, similarly to a gas or coal power plant, despite their non-fossil carbon origin. Natural volcanic emissions are however poorly constrained due to the lack of field scale soil CO2 flux assessments. In this study, we analyse the temporal and spatial variations of soil CO2 flux and soil temperature in the Taupō region, Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, in the light of seasonal variation, field utilisation, and seismicity. Fortnightly monitoring between 2019 and 2023 at 8 sites across the Tauhara and Wairakei geothermal fields provides insight into changes of seasonal variations and geothermal activities. To understand the broader distribution of natural degassing and to compare the CO2 flux over decades, we repeated the CO2 flux survey between 2019 and 2023 and compared to previous results at Karapiti, Wairakei geothermal field (2004, 2018), Ring of Fire, Tauhara geothermal field (2006), and Rotokawa geothermal field (2003, 2011). Similar emissions but a change in the spatial distribution at Tauhara geothermal field suggests that human surface development has affected permeability in the shallow subsurface. In contrast, a similar spatial distribution of flux, but higher emissions, at Karapiti, Wairakei indicates the recovery or modification of reservoir pressure. Finally, a decrease of total emission flux of the natural geothermal features at Rotokawa coincides with the decrease of CO2eq emissions at the power stations. This study showcases the complexity and uncertainties of natural CO2 emission calculations and provides recommendations for future monitoring studies.

Volcanic lakes in large silicic caldera volcanoes are an important source of CO2 emissions. However, quantifying CO2 output is challenging due to the lack of observed historical CO2 flux records and the large size of the volcanic and hydrothermal systems. Twenty percent of the surface area of Okataina Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand is covered with lakes. Geothermal expressions, predominantly on the Okataina caldera margin, occur in at least six different locations, with surface expressions both on land and under water. Lake Rotoiti is located at the northwest edge of the Okataina Caldera, spans across the Tikitere and Taheke geothermal fields, and has inputs from on-land thermal springs, lake floor hydrothermal vents, and from Lake Rotorua. CO2 flux from Lake Rotoiti was assessed using the accumulation chamber method and three techniques are used to process the data for total CO2 emission of the lake: (1) sequential Gaussian simulation (sGs) method allows quantification of CO2 emission with spatial control, (2) graphical statistical approach (GSA) allows the quantification of CO2 emission from different degassing regimes, and (3) a method based on water chemistry of the lake. We find CO2 is mostly emitting at Tumoana Bay and Central Basin, and the emission rate is 271 +/- 38 t d-1 of CO2 (based on sGs). We then added this estimated emission data to the existing CO2 data for individual geothermal systems distributed around the active Okataina volcanic centre and calculate that the entire caldera is emitting at least 1856 t d-1 of CO2. The total emission is dominated by the lakes, where the topography is lower. We discuss the implications of this study in terms of preferential degassing locations and the amount of degassing, in particular for CO2, in an active caldera setting.

Bagana is a remote, highly active volcano, located on Bougainville Island in southeastern Papua New Guinea. The volcano has exhibited sustained and prodigious sulfur dioxide gas emissions in recent decades, accompanied by frequent episodes of lava extrusion. The remote location of Bagana and its persistent activity have made it a valuable case study for satellite observations of active volcanism. This remoteness has also left many features of Bagana relatively unexplored. Here, we present the first measurements of volcanic gas composition, achieved by unoccupied aerial system (UAS) flights through the volcano's summit plume, and a payload comprising a miniaturized MultiGAS. We combine our measurements of the molar CO 2 /SO 2 ratio in the plume with coincident remote sensing measurements (ground‐ and satellite‐based) of SO 2 emission rate to compute the first estimate of CO 2 flux at Bagana. We report low SO 2 and CO 2 fluxes at Bagana from our fieldwork in September 2019, ∼320 ± 76 td −1 and ∼320 ± 84 td −1 , respectively, which we attribute to the volcano's low level of activity at the time of our visit. We use satellite observations to demonstrate that Bagana's activity and emissions behavior are highly variable and advance the argument that such variability is likely an inherent feature of many volcanoes worldwide and yet is inadequately captured by our extant volcanic gas inventories, which are often biased to sporadic measurements. We argue that there is great value in the use of UAS combined with MultiGAS‐type instruments for remote monitoring of gas emissions from other inaccessible volcanoes.

Subduction transports volatiles between Earth's mantle, crust, and atmosphere, ultimately creating a habitable Earth. We use isotopes to track carbon from subduction to outgassing along the Aleutian-Alaska Arc. We find substantial along-strike variations in the isotopic composition of volcanic gases, explained by different recycling efficiencies of subducting carbon to the atmosphere via arc volcanism and modulated by subduction character. Fast and cool subduction facilitates recycling of ~43 to 61% sediment-derived organic carbon to the atmosphere through degassing of central Aleutian volcanoes, while slow and warm subduction favors forearc sediment removal, leading to recycling of ~6 to 9% altered oceanic crust carbon to the atmosphere through degassing of western Aleutian volcanoes. These results indicate that less carbon is returned to the deep mantle than previously thought and that subducting organic carbon is not a reliable atmospheric carbon sink over subduction time scales.

Abstract A challenge in monitoring long‐dormant volcanoes is to discover early signs of reawakening. Mineral springs on Taranaki volcano (2,518 m, New Zealand) have elevated carbonate concentrations, δ13CDIC ∼ −5‰ (VPDB) and He isotopes from 5.13 to 5.92 RA, indicating a magmatic volatile source. Stable isotopes demonstrate water recharge occurs near the volcano's summit. Volatile anions and silica are low in a cold (5oC) flank spring at 1,000 m a.s.l., yet elevated in warm springs (25–32oC) associated with travertine deposits at 250–300 m, suggesting a weak hydrothermal component along the flow path. Tritium dating of the cold spring water yields a mean residence time of 7.8 years. This short residence time and magmatic volatile signatures suggest magmatic CO2 persistently flushes Taranaki's upper edifice. Cold spring geochemistry thus reveals volcanic activity at this dormant volcano that otherwise lacks obvious geophysical signs of unrest.

Episodes of unrest are not as well documented as eruptions at most volcanoes globally. Iliamna is an andesitic stratovolcano in the Cook Inlet of Alaska that has experienced several episodes of unrest. Unrest in 1996 was previously studied. Here we present data from a minor period of unrest between 2002 and 2006, and a more significant period in 2012. None of the episodes led to an eruption. A dike intrusion was suggested for the 1996 unrest based on increases in gas emissions and seismic analysis. The 2002-2006 period was characterized by a slight increase in the rate of seismicity to 13 events per day and was particularly notable due to an increase in deep long period (DLP) seismic events between 15 and 37 km that were not observed at other times. This period also included one airborne gas measurement with and elevated CO2/SO2 molar ratio (17). In 2012, Iliamna unrest was characterized by significantly elevated gas emissions (up to 582 t/d SO2 and 1385 t/d CO2) and up to 49 located earthquakes per day (M > 0), and was remarkably similar to the 1996 unrest. Differences in the observed evolution of the CO2/SO2 gas ratio in 2012 (2.2-4) compared to that in 1996 (up to 18) suggests that no new deep magma was involved in 2012, however this does not preclude the movement of a previously intruded magma. A months-long increase in the SO2/H2S molar ratio from 8 to 17 during the peak of the activity could reflect a temperature increase on the order of 10-30 degrees C of the emitted gas. Compared to pre eruptive unrest at other Cook Inlet volcanoes, Iliamna unrest in 2012 differed in that gas emissions were < 1500 t/d and seismicity lacked a rapidly escalating sequence of earthquakes and volcanic tremor, which is normally observed in the hours to days before eruption. The observation of DLPs, the fact that Iliamna produces moderately elevated degassing over decadal timeframes, and the persistent dominance of SO2 over H2S, suggests that periodic input of fresh magma from the lower crust sustains the shallower magmatic system over time, which sets it apart from neighboring volcanoes in the Cook Inlet that show minimal activity between eruptions. Various scenarios could explain why Iliamna did not proceed to eruption in 2012. Finally, we present criteria by which monitoring data may suggest an increased likelihood of eruption at Iliamna in the future. (C) 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Cleveland and Tana are remote volcanoes located in the central Aleutian volcanic arc on the eastern end of the Islands of Four Mountains (IFM). The persistently active Mount Cleveland volcano, on the western side of Chuginadak Island, is surrounded by several closely spaced Quaternary volcanic centers including Carlisle, Herbert, Kagamil, Tana, and Uliaga, and numerous small satellite vents on Chiginadak between Cleveland and Tana. The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) installed two permanent broadband seismometers on Chuginadak Island in 2014, and we operated a temporary broadband network focused on the western side of the island in 2015-2016. Collectively, these stations provided the first seismic observations of this frequently active volcano and the surrounding Holocene-aged volcanic vents. During the study period (July 2014-January 2019), eruptive activity at Cleveland was characterized by small explosions separated by periods of lava effusion that formed small domes in the volcano's summit crater. We characterize seismicity beneath Chuginadak Island through automated analysis of event waveform frequency content, development of a one-dimensional P-wave velocity model, calculation of earthquake hypocenters, magnitudes, focal mechanisms, and identification of earthquake families. This analysis reveals the full range of seismic event types expected in a highly active volcanic environment and includes Volcano-Tectonic (vr) earthquakes, Long-Period (LP) events, and explosion signals. LP events appear to cluster at shallow depth beneath the active crater of Mount Cleveland and almost all of the explosions occur without identifiable short-term (hours to days) seismic precursors. VT earthquakes beneath Mount Cleveland occur at depths of 2 to 8 km below sea level (BSL) and range in magnitude from -0.2 to 1.8. VT focal mechanisms have horizontal P-axes that align with the regional axis of maximum stress. These observations, and a relatively slow one-dimensional seismic velocity model, are consistent with a shallow body of magma that is fed through a deeper conduit system. The time-history of VT earthquakes and shallow LP events suggest their occurrence may track the transfer of magma and fluids from the mid-crust to the shallow portions of the conduit system and may provide a means to anticipate future explosions and periods of dome growth. VT hypocenters also extend similar to 7 km northeast of Cleveland's summit at depths of 5 to 10 km BSL, under a group of Holocene-aged vents between Mount Cleveland and Tana. These earthquakes have vertically-oriented P-axes and a greater percentage occur in families. These observations, combined with observations of vent orientation and morphology and gas flux, suggest the area between Cleveland and Tana represents a zone of complicated volcano-tectonic interaction, similar to calderas elsewhere in the Aleutian arc. The presence of a larger volcanic system in the eastern IFM could influence magmatism and account for the multiple closely spaced volcanic centers in this region. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Stable isotope, noble gas, and forward modelling insights into the fate of volatiles subducted along the Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand GABE S EPSTEIN1, GRAY E. BEBOUT1, BRUCE CHRISTENSON2, HIROCHIKA SUMINO3, IKUKO WADA4, CYNTHIA A WERNER5 AND DAVID R HILTON6 1Lehigh University 2GNS-Lower Hutt 3The University of Tokyo 4University of Minnesota 5Research Geologist (contractor) 6Scripps Oceanographic Institute, University of California, San Diego Presenting Author: gse216@lehigh.edu

Kīlauea Volcano’s 2018 lower East Rift Zone (LERZ) eruption produced exceptionally high lava effusion rates and record-setting SO2 emissions. The eruption involved a diverse range of magmas, including primitive basalts sourced from Kīlauea’s summit reservoirs. We analyzed LERZ matrix glasses, melt inclusions, and host minerals to identify melt volatile contents and magma storage depths. The LERZ glasses and melt inclusions span nearly the entire compositional range previously recognized at Kīlauea. Melt inclusions in Fo86-89 olivine from the main eruptive vent (fissure 8) underwent 70–170 °C cooling during transport in LERZ carrier melts, causing extensive post-entrapment crystallization and sulfide precipitation. Many of these melt inclusions have low sulfur (400–900 ppm) even after correction for sulfide formation. CO2 and H2O vapor saturation pressures indicate shallow melt inclusion trapping depths (1–5 km), consistent with formation within Kīlauea’s Halemaʻumaʻu and South Caldera reservoirs. Many of these inclusions also have degassed δ34S values (− 1.5 to − 0.5‰). Collectively, these results indicate that some primitive melts experienced near-surface degassing before being trapped into melt inclusions. We propose that decades-to-centuries of repeated lava lake activity and lava drain-back during eruptions (e.g., 1959 Kīlauea Iki) recycled substantial volumes of degassed magma into Kīlauea’s shallow reservoir system. Degassing and magma recycling from the 2008–2018 Halemaʻumaʻu lava lake likely reduced the volatile contents of LERZ fissure 8 magmas, resulting in lower fountain heights compared to many prior Kīlauea eruptions. The eruption’s extreme SO2 emissions were due to high lava effusion rates rather than particularly volatile-rich melts.

Carbon dioxide emissions from active subaerial volcanoes represent 20-50% of the annual global volcanic CO2 flux (Barry et al., 2014). Passive degassing of carbon from the flanks of volcanoes, and the associated accumulation of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) within nearby groundwater, also represents a potentially important, yet poorly constrained flux of carbon to the surface (Werner et al., 2019). Here we investigate sources and sinks of DIC in groundwaters in the Lassen Peak region of California. Specifically, we report and interpret the relative abundance and isotopic composition of helium (He-3, He-4) and carbon (C-12, C-13, C-14) in 37 groundwater samples, from 24 distinct wells, collected between 20 and 60 km from Lassen Peak. Measured groundwater samples have air-corrected He-3/He-4 values between 0.19 and 7.44 RA (where RA = air He-3/He-4 = 1.39 x 10(-6)), all in excess of the radiogenic production value (similar to 0.05 RA), indicating pervasive mantle-derived helium additions to the groundwater system in the Lassen Peak region. Stable carbon isotope ratios of DIC (delta C-13) vary between 12.6 and 27.7% (vs. VPDB). Measured groundwater DIC/He-3 values fall in the range of 2.2 x 10(10) to 1.1 x 10(12). Using helium and carbon isotope data, we explore several conceptual models to estimate surface carbon contributions and to differentiate between DIC derived from soil CO2 versus DIC derived from external (slab and mantle) carbon sources. Specifically, if we use C-14 to identify soil-derived DIC (assuming decadal-tocentennial groundwater ages and a soil CO2 C-14 activity equal to that of the atmosphere), we calculate that a hypothetical external carbon source would have an apparent delta C-13 signature between 10.3 and 59.3% (vs. Vienna Pee Dee Belemnite (VPDB)) and an apparent C/He-3 between 7.0 x 10(9) and 1.0 x 10(12). These apparent delta C-13 and C/He-3 values are substantially isotopically lighter than and greater than canonical MORB values, respectively. We suggest that >95% of any external (non-soil-derived) DIC in groundwater must thus be nonmantle in origin (i.e., slab derived or assimilated organic carbon). We further investigate possible sources of external DIC to groundwater using two idealized conceptual approaches: a pure (unfractionated) source mixing model (after Sano and Marty, 1995) and a scenario that invokes fractionation due to calcite precipitation. Because the former model requires carbon contributions from an organic source component with unrealistically low delta C-13 (similar to 60%), we suggest that the second scenario is more plausible. Importantly, however, we caution that all conceptual models are dependent on assumptions about initial C-14 activity. Thus, we cannot rule out the possibility that the true fraction of non-surface-derived DIC in these samples is lower or negligible, despite the pervasive mantle-derived He isotope signatures throughout the region. Following the C-14 approach to deconvolving sources of DIC, we determine that the maximum passive carbon flux could be up to similar to 2.2 x 106 kg/yr, which is lower than previous magmatic carbon flux estimates from the Lassen region (Rose and Davisson, 1996). We find that the passive dissolved carbon flux could represent a maximum of similar to 4-18% of the total Lassen geothermal CO2 degassing flux (estimated to be similar to 3.5 x 10(7) kg/yr Rose and Davisson, 1996; Gerlach et al., 2008), which is still more than an order of magnitude smaller than soil gas CO2 flux estimates (7.3-11 x 10(7) kg/ yr) for nearby volcanoes (Sorey et al., 1998; Gerlach et al., 1999; Evans et al., 2002; Werner et al., 2014). We conclude that passive dissolved carbon fluxes should be combined with geothermal fluxes and soil gas fluxes to obtain a complete picture of volcanic carbon emissions globally. Our approach highlights the utility of measuring helium isotopes in concert with the full suite of noble gas abundances, tritium, delta C-13 and C-14, which when interpreted together can be used to better elucidate the various sources of DIC in groundwater.

We present a quantitative assessment of the input and output of CO2 and N2 along the Hikurangi margin based on the chemical and stable isotope composition of sediments and basalts (from IODP 375), previously accreted metasedimentary rocks, and volcanic/hydrothermal gases (together with noble gas data for the latter). We compare these results with 3‐D thermo‐petrologic models for four lithologic structures, representing different plateau inputs. The model results indicate that 59%–85% of initially subducted C and 5%–12% of N is lost from the slab during metamorphism, with both volatiles being dominantly sourced from altered oceanic crust with some contribution from subducted sediment at the forearc‐arc transition (75–90 km depth). The δ13CVPDB and CO2/3He values for the arc gases range from −8.3 to −1.4‰ and 2 × 109 to 2.7 × 1011, indicating contributions from slab carbonate, organic C, and mantle C of 67%, 30%, and 3%, respectively. The δ15Nair and N2/36Ar values of arc gases are −1.0 to +2.3‰ and 1.54 × 104 to 1.9 × 105, indicating slab and mantle contributions of 74% and 26%. The δ13C signature of gases requires addition of organic C by tectonic erosion and/or shallow crustal assimilation. These calculations yield whole‐margin fluxes of 5.4–7.0 Tg/yr for CO2 and 0.0022–0.0057 Tg/yr for N2, corresponding to ∼2.2% and 1%–30% of the global CO2 and N2 flux from subaerial volcanoes worldwide (assuming no loss during transit). This unique assessment of volatile cycling could prove useful in refining regional and global estimates of volatile recycling efficiency.

AbstractMount Cleveland is one of Alaska's most active volcanoes, yet little is known about the magmatic system driving persistent and dynamic volcanic activity. Volcanic gas and melt inclusion (MI) data from 2016 were combined to investigate shallow magmatic processes. SO2 emission rates were between 166 and 324 t/day and the H2O/SO2 was 600 ± 53, whereas CO2 and H2S were below detection. Olivine‐, clinopyroxene‐, and plagioclase‐hosted MIs have up to 3.8 wt.% H2O, 514 ppm CO2, and 2,320 ppm S. Equilibration depths, based on MI H2O contents, suggest that a magmatic column extended from 0.5 to 3.0 km (~10–60 MPa). We used MI data to empirically model open‐system H‐C‐S degassing from 0 to 12 km and found that a column of magma between 0.5 and 3 km could produce the measured gas H2O/SO2 ratio. However, additional magma deeper than 3 km is required to sustain emissions over periods greater than days to weeks, if the observed vent dimension is a valid proxy for the conduit. Assuming an initial S content of 2,320 ppm, the total magma supply needed to sustain the annual SO2 flux was 5 to 9.8 Mm3/yr, suggesting a maximum intrusive‐to‐extrusive ratio of 13:1. The model predicts degassing of <50 t/day CO2 for July 2016, which corresponds to a maximum predicted CO2/SO2 of 0.2. Ultimately, frequent recharge from deeper, less degassed magma is required to drive the continuous activity observed over multiple years. During periods of recharge we would expect lower H2O/SO2 and measurable volcanic CO2.

First posted April 24, 2020 For additional information, contact: Director,Volcano Science CenterU.S. Geological Survey4210 University DriveAnchorage, AK 99508 Five volcanic-hydrothermal systems in the central Aleutians Islands were sampled for water and gas geochemistry in 2015 to provide baseline data to help predict future volcanic unrest. Some areas had not been sampled in 20–30 years (Makushin volcano, Geyser Bight), and other areas had minimal to no prior sampling (Tana volcano and Fisher Caldera). The chemical and isotopic data of the waters show a wide variety of characteristics typical of hydrothermal settings. Stable isotopic analyses of the waters show no evidence for primary magmatic water, rather that waters have a meteoric origin that is variably influenced by boiling and evaporation processes. The carbon and helium isotopic analyses of gases suggest they contain a primary magmatic component typical of the upper mantle at most locations, and the CO2/S ratios show that these gases have been modified by interactions with groundwater along the flow paths. Some areas demonstrate stable compositions since the last sampling (for example, Akutan hydrothermal areas), with some being remarkably steady over very long periods (for example, Geyser Bight). Other areas show modifications because of either lower amounts of upwelling from hydrothermal sources or lower amounts of magmatic influence on the surface chemistry (for example, Upper Glacial valley of Makushin, an informally named valley leading south of the volcano toward Makushin Bay to the south). Finally, this report highlights that previously unsampled regions in the Aleutian Islands, such as Tana volcano and Fisher Caldera (the latter found to have one of the highest helium isotopic signatures ever measured in the Aleutian Islands), show evidence of ongoing subsurface magmatism that warrants continued investigation in terms of volcanic hazard.

Bagana volcano, Papua New Guinea, is among Earth’s youngest and most active volcanoes. Bagana typically exhibits multi-year episodes of lava extrusion, interspersed with pause periods characterised by strong passive degassing. Based on satellite-based observations, Bagana is the third ranked global source of volcanic sulfur dioxide over the past 15 years. Recent work based on global correlations between volcanic gas composition and magma trace element chemistry has predicted that it may be the fifth ranked global volcanic deep carbon source. However, this indirect estimate of Bagana’s potential carbon budget has yet to be ground-truthed by in-situ sampling. We visited Bagana in September 2019 and made the first measurements of the chemical composition of the volcano’s summit gas plume. We placed a miniaturized MultiGAS sensor array on board an unoccupied aerial system (UAS, or drone) and flew the sensors through the plume. Our aircraft flew beyond visual line of sight, reaching the gas plume from around 7 km horizontal distance and 2 km altitude below the summit. Such long-range UAS flights offer immense potential for studying gas emissions from such steep, active or remote volcanoes. Our MultiGAS flights found relatively low concentrations of both sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide in the Bagana plume. Moreover, we made coincident remote sensing measurements of sulfur dioxide emissions using ground- and UAS-based ultraviolet spectroscopy and calculated SO2 fluxes of only ~400 tonnes per day. These are an order of magnitude below the typical fluxes inferred from satellite observations. Combining MultiGAS plume composition (CO2/SO2 molar ratio, mean ~3.4) and SO2 fluxes allow us to estimate Bagana’s CO2 flux into the atmosphere as only ~1360 t/d. Our interpretation of these results is that the volcano is presently in a low state of activity. From satellite observations, we note the cessation of the most recent extrusive episode several weeks prior to our field campaign. The lack of the anticipated strong passive degassing often observed by spaceborne UV sensors is likely a result of “scrubbing” in the volcanic edifice, where rising gases interact with groundwater, resulting in dissolution of sulfur species into the groundwater and perhaps precipitation of sulfur-bearing minerals into edifice fractures. As the volcano moves towards a future extrusive episode, we might anticipate the gradual drying out of the hydrothermal system and a shift towards more truly magmatic gas compositions. Our results show that short campaign measurements may not provide data which are representative of a volcano’s longterm behaviour and we suggest that caution is needed in using such data to calculate or extrapolate regional and global volatile emissions inventories.

Starting on 3 May 2018, a series of eruptive fissures opened in Kīlauea Volcano’s lower East Rift Zone (LERZ). Over the course of the next 3 months, intense degassing accompanied lava effusion from these fissures. Here, we report on ground-based observations of the gas emissions associated with Kīlauea’s 2018 eruption. Visual observations combined with radiative transfer modeling show that ultraviolet light could not efficiently penetrate the gas and aerosol plume in the LERZ, complicating SO2 measurements by differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS). By applying a statistical method that integrates a radiative transfer model with the DOAS retrievals, we were able to calculate sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission rates along with estimates of their uncertainty. We find that sustained SO2 emissions were highest in June and early July, when approximately 200 kt SO2 were emitted daily. At the 68% confidence interval, we estimate that 7.1–13.6 Mt SO2 were released from the LERZ during the entire May to September eruptive episode. Scaling our results with in situ measurements of plume composition, we calculate that 11–21 Mt H2O and 1.5–2.8 Mt CO2 were also emitted. The gas and aerosol emissions caused hazardous conditions in areas proximal to the active vents, but plume dispersion modeling shows that the eruption also significantly impacted air quality hundreds of kilometers downwind. Combined with petrologic studies of the erupted lavas, our measurements indicate that 1.1–2.3 km3 dense-rock equivalent of lava were erupted from the LERZ, which is approximately twice the concomitant collapse volume of the volcano’s summit.