Maize ear rot is a common disease found worldwide, caused by several toxigenic Fusarium species. Maize ears and kernels infected by Fusarium subglutinans contained significant amounts of beauvericin, fusaproliferin, moniliformin, and enniatins. In 2011, F. subglutinans sensu lato has been divided into two species: Fusarium temperatum sp. nov. and F. subglutinans sensu stricto, showing different phylogeny and beauvericin production within the populations of maize pathogens in Belgium. Isolates of the new speciesF. temperatumwere also identified and characterized in Spain, Argentina, Poland, France, and China as one of the most important pathogens of maize. Moreover, F. temperatum was proved to be pathogenic to maize seedlings and stalks. We identified Fusarium isolates obtained from diseased maize ears collected between 2013 and 2016 in Poland (321 isolates). Based on morphological analyses, six Fusarium species were identified. Molecular identification performed on the set of selected isolates (42 isolates) revealed 34 isolates to be F. temperatum and only five to be F. subglutinans. Interestingly, the phylogenetic analysis showed that the population of F. temperatum infecting maize in Poland remained quite uniform for over 30years with only a few exceptions. For the first time, a single isolate of Fusarium ramigenum was detected from the area of Poland. Significant amounts of BEA were found in Fusarium-damaged kernels. The same kernel samples contained also enniatins A1, A, B1, and B. The results clearly demonstrate the occurrence of F. temperatum as maize pathogen in Poland for over the last three decades.

Two Fusarium species were identified in mouldy maize ears with the highest frequency during 2005–2014 in 7 seasons: F. subglutinans (3.1–42.0%) and F. verticillioides (44.1– 70.3%). Two other species were also found but with lower frequency: F. graminearum (1.0–13.0%) and F. poae (1–45.7%). In 2005 fumonisin FB 1 , and in 2013 and 2014 three fumonisins (FBs) – FB 1 , FB 2 and FB 3 – were identified in harvest samples. The Fusarium -damaged kernel (FDK) fraction contained almost the totality of mycotoxins (90.0–95.0%), while healthy looking kernels (HLK) contained only below 5.0 to 10.0%. Kernels naturally infected by F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum contained (in mg kg −1 ) up to 710.00 of fumonisin B 1 , up to 209.72 of fumonisin B 2 and up to 35.72 of fumonisin B 3 .

This work presents a survey on mycotoxins (seasons 2013 and 2014) and Fusarium species (seasons from 1985 to 2014) in maize ear rot in Poland. Twelve mycotoxins were identified in maize kernel samples exhibiting symptoms of Fusarium ear rot or rotten kernels at the harvest in two locations in Poland during the seasons 2013 and 2014. This is the first complex survey on the co-occurrence of four Fusarium mycotoxin groups in maize kernels: the group of the mycohormone zearalenone; the group of trichothecenes - deoxynivalenol and nivalenol; the group of fumonisins; and the group of cyclic hexadepsipeptides - beauvericin and enniatins; and in addition, moniliformin. Four Fusarium species were identified in preharvest maize ear rot in the 2013 and 2014 harvests namely: F. graminearum, F. poae, F. subglutinans and F. verticillioides. Since 1985, eleven Fusarium species have been identified in 13 investigation seasons. Apart from those mentioned above, F. avenaceum, F. cerealis, F. culmorum and F. sporotrichioides were observed with irregular frequencies, and three species, i.e. F. proliferatum, F. tricinctum and F. equiseti, were identified sporadically. A significant increase of F. verticillioides frequency and a decrease of F. subglutinans frequency and changes of mycotoxin profile have been observed in the two decades since 1995.

Fusarium avenaceum is one of the most important pathogenic species in agricultural and forest environments of moderate climate, particularly in cereals and legume pulse crops. Numerous mycotoxins can be synthesized by the species, with moniliformin and enniatins (ENN) being the prevailing metabolites. The aims of this work were to examine the amounts of ENN and beauvericin present in naturally contaminated field samples of wheat kernels and chaffs collected in Poland in 2005 and 2009 from heads infected withF. avenaceum, and to reveal the divergence of theesyn1 gene amongF. avenaceum strains of different origin. ENN-B and ENN-B1 were the major metabolites identified in wheat field samples. Chaff fractions contained significantly more mycotoxins than grain. Samples originating from 2005 were in general less contaminated with ENN than those from the 2009 season. The highest amount of ENN-B found in grain was 28,520 μg/kg. Beauvericin was only found in trace amounts in all the samples tested.F. avenaceum strains isolated from the analysed wheat samples were identified using species-specific DNA marker and translation elongation factor 1α (tef-1α) sequence analysis. A higher level of sequence polymorphism was revealed for the enniatin synthetase (esyn1) gene than ecorded bytef-1α analysis. Moreover, species known to be typical beauvericin producers, e.g.Fusarium oxysporum andFusarium proliferatum, were clustered into a separate branch on the dendrogram, apart from the strains of ENN-producing species, i.e.F. avenaceum andFusarium scirpi.

Fusarium head blight (FHB) of cereals is one of the most important pre-harvest diseases worldwide. One possible method to reduce the intensity of FHB and mycotoxin levels is to apply fungicides to wheat at the flowering stage. This paper reports the efficacy of fungicides to control FHB and reduce the associated mycotoxin biosynthesis. In a two-year experiment eight combinations of fungicides were tested. Ear inoculation with a suspension of conidia of Fusarium culmorum representing the DON chemotype, confirmed by PCR assay, was conducted during anthesis. All fungicides significantly reduced FHB severity. The best control and the highest wheat yield were obtained after the application of spiroxamine + prothioconazole at GS 29–32, combined with prothioconazole + fluoxastrobin at GS 49–55 (yield 166.5% of the control) or tebuconazole and prothioconazole (165.8%). All the other protection programs resulted in higher yields (117.1–138.5% of the control). A clear relation was observed between the disease intensity and mycotoxin concentrations.

High incidence of Fusarium head blight occurred in Northern and Southern Poland in the 2009 season. Head samples from 106 wheat fields were collected before harvest from Northern, Central and Southern Poland in August 2009. Fusarium species were identified in 1,311 heads with visible scab symptoms and the collected material was subjected to mycotoxin analyses. Fusarium graminearum was identified as the most frequently occurring species on wheat, present in 48% of all samples examined. This species prevailed in Northern and Southern Poland, with the frequencies of 53% and 55%, respectively, and its frequency has increased over five-fold after two decades. In the central part of the country, Fusarium culmorum was the major pathogen of wheat, with a frequency of 43%, although in this region the incidence of infected heads in wheat fields was lower than 1%. Several other species, including Fusarium avenaceum, Fusarium cerealis and Microdochium nivale, occurred with lower frequencies. Microscopic identification of species was confirmed using species-specific markers in DNA extracted directly from sporodochia. For the first time, glucosylated deoxynivalenol was identified in Polish cereals, in amounts of 1.6 to 7.4 mg/kg. Deoxynivalenol (DON) content was estimated between 1.7 and 11.9 mg/kg for the healthy looking kernels (HLK) fraction, while the Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK) were contaminated with high amounts of DON, from 57.3 to 312.3 mg/kg, and zearalenone, from 0.035 to 4.48 mg/kg. The HLK fractions contained about 20 times less DON and zearalenone (ZEA) than the FDK fractions. ZEA accumulated in both FDK kernels and chaff fractions at a similar level. DON was accumulated in the chaff fraction in much lower amounts than in the FDK fraction.

The kinetics of fumonisin B-1 (FB1) biosynthesis have been examined in ears of four botanical varieties Zea mays var. indentata, Zea mays var. indurata, Zea mays var. saccharata and Zea mays var. everta inoculated with F. verticillioides isolates at silking stage. The level of mycotoxin accumulated in kernels was correlated with sample harvest time (r = 0.73) and ergosterol content (r = 0.70). FB1 biosynthesis was influenced by amylose, starch and moisture contents, which undergo dynamic changes during grain formation. A comparative analysis of ear infection rates and efficiency of FB1 biosynthesis showed that these are separate characters and their expression could be independent.

Infection of plants by pathogens is a biotic environmental stress. Barley plants are infected, among others, by Fusarium culmorum—a pathogen affecting seedling, head, root and stem. The infection can result in reduced yield and grain quality. The aim of the study was to compare the reaction of inoculated and non-inoculated barley doubled haploids (DHs) with F. culmorum in various environments. Thirty-four genotypes were inoculated with an isolate of F. culmorum. The experiment was carried out over 6 years. Kernel weight per spike, 1000-kernel weight and percentage of plump kernels were observed in control and inoculated plants. Genotype-by-environment (GE) interaction and its structure with reference to the environments and genotypes were analysed. Additional information about the sensitivity of healthy and infected genotypes to environments was determined by the regression analysis. Statistical computation was made using the SERGEN software. Lines were considered as unstable when their GE interaction was significant at P = 0.05. Unstable genotypes were classified as intensive or extensive according to the results of the regression analysis. It was found that infection with Fusarium decreased the stability of barley lines in different environments. Interaction of unstable infected genotypes with environments, most often, could not be explained by the regression—their response to various environmental conditions appeared to be unpredictable. Selection of lines less susceptible to biotic and abiotic stresses was possible due to comparison of classification of healthy and infected lines, which was made based on their main effects and GE interaction.

Fusarium head blight is a wheat disease of global importance and devastating impact in some years, especially in regions with high cereal production. Wheat grain contamination with mycotoxins is the result of head infection with several Fusarium pathogens. Among all metabolites accumulated in grain of wheat and other cereals infected with Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium graminearum, deoxynivalenol (DON) and other trichothecenes as well as zearalenone (ZEA) are accumulated with the highest levels and frequencies. Furthermore, moniliformin and enniatins were identified in several countries, where Fusarium avenaceum frequency was high. Several other species occurring with lower frequency have been reported. The chemotypes of individual isolates were established with the use of specific PCR markers. This review summarises the information on toxigenic Fusarium species infecting wheat heads, the morphological and molecular identification methods, toxic metabolites accumulated in the infected grain and on recent Fusarium genomic research. The interaction between the aggressive Fusarium pathogens and wheat host plant is discussed, particularly concerning the level of accumulation of DON and ZEA in grain samples. Various types of plant resistance against Fusarium head blight are described, together with wheat quantitative trait loci and DNA markers for their identification, that are useful for resistance breeding. Taking into account the risk of increased occurrence of several Fusarium mycotoxins, regulatory limits of DON, ZEA and fumonisins were established in EU, USA, Canada and other countries.

Fusarium culmorum (W.G.Sm.) Sacc. is a pathogen affecting seedling, head, root and stem of barley, and the infection can result in significantly reduction of yield and grain quality. The aim of the studies was to compare the susceptibility of hulless and hulled barley doubled haploids (DH) to infection with F. culmorum. Thirty DH lines (15 hulled and 15 hulless) and their parents were inoculated with a conidial suspension of the isolate of F. culmorum KF350 (IPO348-01) (nivalenol chemotype). Experiment was carried out over six years. Spike infection score, kernel weight per spike, 1000-kernel weight and percentage of plump kernels (>2.5 mm) were examined in control and inoculated plants. In addition, in three environments, nivalenol (NIV) accumulation in infected kernels was analysed. Significant influence of genotypes and environments on spike infection, yield-related traits and NIV accumulation was found in inoculated plants. Hulless genotypes appeared to be more susceptible to infection than the hulled lines. The difference in NIV accumulation was not important - mean NIV content over three environments was similar for both groups of DH lines. Results suggest that glumes adhered to seed may protect it, to a certain degree, against penetration of the pathogen inside the seed.

Fusarium head blight and maize ear rot are destructive diseases in various cereal production regions, leading to significant yield losses and to the contamination of cereal grain with Fusarium mycotoxins. The mycotoxin zearalenone belongs to the three most important mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species worldwide; moreover, its hormonal oestrogenic activity is higher than its toxicity. The compound also exhibits fungitoxic activity. Toxigenic Fusarium species sporulate on cereal crop residues and produce inoculum to infect the next crop. Reduction of mycotoxin production and pathogen sporulation may be influenced by saprophytic fungal antagonists. Selected Trichoderma and Clonostachys isolates in dual culture bioassays on rice reduced zearalenone, α-zearalenol and zearalenone sulphate production by two isolates of Fusarium graminearum Schwabe and two isolates of F. culmorum (W.G. Smith) Saccardo belonging to three different chemotypes, by over 97%. Two Trichoderma isolates reduced the amount of zearalenone produced by the same four Fusarium isolates by 5-83% in solid substrate bioassays, whereas several Clonostachys isolates reduced the amount of zearalenone by over 96%. Examination of the dynamics of zearalenone reduction showed that the reduction occurred at the fastest rate during the first four days of incubation. Selected non-toxigenic Trichoderma and Clonostachys isolates are candidates for biocontrol agents against toxigenic Fusarium pathogens of cereals and may be useful for decomposition of zearalenone in contaminated cereal grain and cereal products.

The set of 44 near-isogenic lines of spring wheat cv. Thatcher and wheat genotypes known to carry specific leaf rust resistance genes were included in the present study for the preliminary validation of twelve STS and SCAR markers linked to leaf rust resistance genes Lr9, Lr19, Lr20, Lr21, Lr24, Lr25, Lr26, Lr28, Lr29, Lr37. Seven Lr genes were specifically tagged by STS and SCAR markers. The presence of genes Lr9, Lr19, Lr20, Lr24, Lr28, Lr29, Lr37 in the tested plant materials was confirmed by a unique amplification of markers SCS5 550, SCS265 512 and SCS253 736, STS638, SCS73 719, SCS421 570, IPY10 and Lr29F24/R24, cslVrgal3, PS10R/L, respectively. Evaluation of the repeatability and the reliability of selected markers (pTAG621 for Lr1, STS683 for Lr20, D14L for Lr21, Lr25F20/R19 for Lr25, Lr29F24/R24, IPY10 for Lr29, cslVrgal3 for Lr37 and PS10R/L for Lr47) across four European laboratories and PCR conditions demonstrated the usability of STS638, Lr29F24/R24, IPY10, cslVrgal3 and PS10R/L markers in marker-assisted selection. STS markers pTAG621 for gene Lr1, D14L for gene Lr21, Lr25F20/R19 for gene Lr25 were found to be unsuitable for effective screening of large segregating populations in breeding programs.

Zearalenone is a mycotoxin produced by some Fusarium species in food and feed. From a global perspective, Fusarium mycotoxins may be considered as metabolites of particular importance to animal health and productivity. The aim of this review is to collect and summarise information concerning the properties of zearalenone, its derivatives and their biotransformation. Data on the occurrence and toxicity of zearalenone and a comparison of analytical methods used in zearalenone identification and quantification will also be discussed. As our awareness and understanding of the risks associated with zearalenone exposure increase, some countries set official or recommended limits in certain commodities.

F. moniliforme and other species of Liseola section, F. culmorum, F. dlamini, and F. nygamai, were examined for their ability to produce gibberellic acid (GA3), fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, moniliformin, and bikaverin (TLC method). Gibberellic acid was produced by F. moniliforme strains in liquid medium and on rice kernels with a maximum concentration level of 470 mg/dm3 and 1 g/kg, respectively. No strain isolated in Poland produced GA3. High-yielding gibberellic acid strains produced neither trichothecenes and fumonisins nor other tested compounds. Also the rest of strains of examined species did not produce trichothecenes and other mycotoxins except for fumonisins which were found in rice cultures of F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum, and F. subglutinans. Bikaverin was produced by F. moniliforme always together with fumonisins. Filtrates of liquid cultures of gibberellin producing strains were tested for their toxicity to brine shrimps larvae (Artemia salina). It was found that GA3 presence does not increase toxicity of these filtrates.

Twenty-seven preharvest maize ears affected by Fusarium poae rot (disease score 36-100%) were selected in 1998 and 1999 in Poland and examined for the occurrence of toxic hexadepsipeptides: beauvericin (BEA), enniatin A, enniatin B and enniatin B-1. The identification of F. poae was confirmed by sequence analysis of variable internal transcribed spacer regions and compared with NCBI gene bank DNA sequences. Chemical analyses were performed by HPLC-MS. In 27 ears infected by F. poae were detected: BEA (trace to 46 mu g/g) in 18 samples, enniatin A (trace to 37 mu g/g) in nine samples, enniatin B (trace to 47 mu g/g) in 15 samples and enniatin B-1 (trace to 25 mu g/g) in 12 samples. When 20 strains of F. poae isolated from these samples were cultured on rice, all produced BEA (1.9-75 mu g/g), three enniatin A (1.8-2 mu g/g), 12 enniatin B (1.1-5.1 mu g/g) and eight enniatin B-1 (1.2-5.2 mu g/g). Occurrence and quantification of enniatin A, enniatin B and enniatin B-1 and their co-occurrence with BEA in maize kernels is reported for the first time.