Human disturbances, such as habitat destruction and overharvesting, are greatly harming ecosystems and causing significant declines in biodiversity. Although protected areas play a crucial role in conserving terrestrial mammals, nearly non-protected areas (N-PAs) have similar functions, harbor high biodiversity and ecosystem integrity, and deserve to be protected. To identify the conservation value of mammalian species in critical ecosystems within N-PAs, we conducted a camera-trap survey in Luolong County, Tibet, from November 2019 to June 2023, monitoring 159 sites and documenting 25 mammalian species across 28 similar or dissimilar habitats. We found this area was an integrity ecosystem with higher species richness and diversity in scrub and evergreen forests with notable occurrence of herbivores comprising musk deer, chinese serow, woolly hares and carnivores such as the common leopard, snow leopards, red foxes and stone marten. Mammalian species occurrence increased away from human activities. Different habitats and seasons influenced diversity and species interactions. Key findings include species preferences for specific habitats, such as blue sheep on southern slopes during snow, musk deer in mixed forests, and red foxes avoiding alpine meadows. Habitat type, elevation, and human disturbance significantly impacted species distribution and behavior. The study also found that snow leopard activity time negatively correlates with woolly hare, while common leopards are influenced positively by hares and negatively by brown bears. Red foxes are slightly more active near the chinese serow occurrence areas. Other predators and prey, such as eurasian lynx, gray wolves, musk deer and stone martens show specific seasonal and interspecific interactions, with some relationships explaining small portions of variation. Overall, species temporal detection events are interconnected through complex ecological interactions. These findings improve our understanding of habitat hosting for rare species and the balance of endangered prey and predator communities in N-PAs in Tibet, emphasizing their significance for conservation efforts.

The evolutionary shift from arboreal to fossorial lifestyles, coupled with deep hibernation and high-altitude hypoxia tolerance, represents a suite of extreme physiological adaptations unique to ground squirrels. To investigate the molecular basis of these interconnected traits, we generated a chromosome-level genome of the Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) and conducted comparative analyses across 11 squirrel species. Evolutionary breakpoint regions distinguishing arboreal from fossorial taxa were enriched in bone morphogenesis and motor nervous system genes, providing testable hypotheses for the fossorial transition. Positively selected genes in hibernating ground squirrels included circadian regulators, and a hibernator-specific TIMELESS Leu173Phe mutation enhanced PER2 binding in co-immunoprecipitation assays, offering a candidate mechanism for circadian dampening during torpor. In M. himalayana, a fixed EPAS1 Thr478Met variant reduced protein expression under hypoxia while upregulating LDHA and VEGF, revealing a fine-tuned strategy for high-altitude adaptation. Together, these findings provide molecular insights into three key evolutionary innovations with TIMELESS and EPAS1 variants are supported by functional validations and the fossorial transition representing comparative genomic hypotheses awaiting further testing. The authors sequence the Himalayan marmot genome and compare 11 squirrel species, revealing candidate genes underlying fossorial transition, a hibernator-specific TIMELESS mutation enhancing PER2 binding, and an EPAS1 variant tuning hypoxia adaptation.

The evolutionary dynamics of immune adaptors in wildlife remain poorly understood, despite their critical role in host-pathogen interactions. In this study, we investigated the molecular evolution of five TIR domain-containing adaptors (MAL, MyD88, SARM, TRAM, and TRIF) in murid rodents across both interspecific and population levels to provide an integrative view of their evolutionary trajectories. Our analyses demonstrate that these adaptors are predominantly under purifying selection in murids, yet contain specific positively selected sites in MAL and MyD88, indicating localized adaptive fine-tuning. These positively selected amino acid sites exhibited substantial genetic divergence among murid species. Within populations, we observed reduced genetic diversity in the adaptor genes compared with noncoding regions across the whole genome in both Rattus tanezumi and Rattus norvegicus, and no significant signals of recent positive or negative selection were detected in either species. Notably, we identified identical or nearly identical allelic variants between these two rat species across all five adaptor genes. Collectively, this study delineates the evolution of immune adaptors in murids across both deep and recent timescales, advancing our understanding of adaptive evolution in multilevel immune systems.

Carnivores frequently rely on scent and visual markings for intraspecific communication, delineating territorial boundaries, attracting mates and assessing competitors. However, studying such behaviours in rare and elusive species poses significant challenges. To enhance our understanding of the diel marking behaviours of common leopard (Panthera pardus), from November, 2019 to June, 2023, we conducted a comprehensive camera-trap survey in Luolong county of Tibet, China. Our monitoring encompassed 159 locations yielded 1,208 (excluded 700 unknown sex) individual leopard detections over 60,000 trap days, allowing us to quantify the frequency and temporal patterns of marking behaviours. Of these, 153 detections involved territorial marking in snowy conditions, while 355 occurred in snow-free environments. Female leopards in mixed forests and shrublands exhibited higher diurnal activity in snow-presence days. Male leopards engaged in a range of behaviours - including sniffing and rolling - primarily within mixed, coniferous and shrubland habitats. Male leopards engaged more frequently in behaviours such as sniffing, scraping, urine spraying, body rubbing, vocalizations, rolling and scat deposition with notable differences in scraping frequency compared to females. Female leopards displayed similar behaviours but at reduced levels particularly in scraping activities. The number of scrapes observed at camera-trap sites appears to be an indicator of leopard visitation rates suggesting its usefulness for optimizing monitoring efforts. Our findings contribute valuable insights into how environmental factors influence social communication strategies in leopards, enhance our understanding of male and female leopard territorial and making behaviours in various environments, and benefit for the conservation and monitoring of carnivore populations.

Knowledge of the mechanisms of species coexistence is crucial for biodiversity conservation. The tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), and Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii) are all found in alpine ecosystems in Tibet, China. To investigate how these sympatric species achieve stable coexistence, we compared species distribution models and diurnal activity rhythms to analyze their spatial and temporal niche characteristics based on data collected from 186 camera traps set in Changdu prefecture. The results indicate he following: (1) In Changdu, the total area of suitable habitats for tufted deer, alpine musk deer and Chinese serow are 14,968 km2, 41,909 km2, and 36,954 km2, respectively. These areas represent approximately 13.62%, 38.14%, and 33.63% of the study area, respectively. (2) The total overlapping area of suitable habitats between tufted deer and alpine musk deer is 5102 km2. The total overlapping area of suitable habitats between tufted deer and Chinese serow is 6483 km2. Additionally, the total overlapping area of suitable habitats between alpine musk deer and Chinese serow amounts to 26,869 km2. (3) The overlap index for daily activity rhythms between tufted deer and alpine musk deer is 0.88—this difference is statistically significant (p < 0.001). Similarly, the overlap index for daily activity rhythms between tufted deer and Chinese serow is 0.82—also significantly different (p < 0.001). Lastly, the overlap index for daily activity rhythms between alpine musk deer and Chinese serow is 0.76—again showing a significant difference (p < 0.001). The results provide valuable insight into conservation strategies aimed at preserving populations and habitats of tufted deer, alpine musk deer, and Chinese serow while contributing to a deeper understanding of resource partitioning mechanisms as well as population dynamics among coexisting species.

The unique environment of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau provides a great opportunity to study how primate intestinal microorganisms adapt to ecosystems. The 16S rRNA gene amplicon and metagenome analysis were conducted to investigate the correlation between gut microbiota in primates and other sympatric animal species living between 3600 and 4500 m asl. Results showed that within the same geographical environment, Macaca mulatta and Rhinopithecus bieti exhibited a gut microbiome composition similar to that of Tibetan people, influenced by genetic evolution of host, while significantly differing from other distantly related animals. The gut microbiota of plateau species has developed similar strategies to facilitate their hosts’ adaptation to specific environments, including broadening its dietary niche and enhancing energy absorption. These findings will enhance our comprehension of the significance of primate gut microbiota in adapting to specific habitats. Analyses of gut microbiomes from sympatric animals of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and comparison with Tibetan human gut microbiomes reveals the impact of host phylogeny on gut microbiota composition.

Subsequently to the publication of this paper, the authors were contacted by an interested reader who was concerned that they had reported some erroneous information regarding the structure and properties of small heat‑shock protein Hsp22, and its participation in different aspects of cardiovascular diseases. After having considered the reader's comments (with which the authors agree), they have proposed the following change should be made to the text of the paper: The opening sentence of the section "2. Protective effect of HSP22 on myocardial cells" in the left‑hand column of p. 2, instead of reading "HSP22 is a transmembrane protein with a stable tertiary structure, which contains long α‑helices and short β‑curls that result in a high degree of stability (9,14).", should be replaced by the following text: "HSP22 has an α‑crystallin domain next to the C‑terminus and is mainly found in the cytoplasm (9,14). The authors regret that erroneous information that was included in the published review, and are grateful to the Editor of Molecular Medicine Reports for granting them the opportunity to publish this corrigendum. Furthermore, they thank the interested reader for drawing this matter to our attention, and apologize to the readership for any inconvenience caused. [Molecular Medicine Reports 31: 82, 2025; DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2025.13447].

The understanding the spatial distribution status and reproduction as well as individual identification and communication behaviour of an endangered species assessment is essential for the species population dynamics, human activities such as changes in land use, overgrazing, poaching, retaliatory killings and the fur trade are causing a rapid decline in the habitats of apex predators worldwide. Studying communication behaviours and observing cubs in their natural habitat present challenges. A comprehensive 8-year research project (2015–2023) in northern Pakistan utilized 139 motion-triggered cameras strategically placed to capture leopard behaviours documenting a total of 330 events within each study sites and recording videos of snow leopard cubs with their mother. Additionally, preliminary reproducing females snow leopard were observed across different study sites with 10 adult and sub-adult cubs, four reproducing females and three adult males snow leopard being identified. The first-time detection of rare photographic events like communication behaviour and activity using camera traps is significant tools for future conservation. The documentation of snow leopard reproductive behaviors in Northern Pakistan from 2015 to 2023 has broad implications for conservation and understanding of these magnificent creature.

BACKGROUND Previous research has highlighted correlations between blood cell counts and chronic liver disease. Nonetheless, the causal relationships remain unknown. AIM To evaluate the causal effect of blood cell traits on liver enzymes and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) risk. METHODS Independent genetic variants strongly associated with blood cell traits were extracted from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) conducted by the Blood Cell Consortium. Summary-level data for liver enzymes were obtained from the United Kingdom Biobank. NAFLD data were obtained from a GWAS meta-analysis (8434 cases and 770180 controls, discovery dataset) and the Fingen GWAS (2275 cases and 372727 controls, replication dataset). This analysis was conducted using the inverse-variance weighted method, followed by various sensitivity analyses. RESULTS One SD increase in the genetically predicted haemoglobin concentration (HGB) was associated with a β of 0.0078 (95%CI: 0.0059-0.0096), 0.0108 (95%CI: 0.0080-0.0136), 0.0361 (95%CI: 0.0156-0.0567), and 0.0083 (95%CI: 00046-0.0121) for alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase, and gamma-glutamyl transferase, respectively. Genetically predicted haematocrit was associated with ALP (β = 0.0078, 95%CI: 0.0052-0.0104) and ALT (β = 0.0057, 95%CI: 0.0039-0.0075). Genetically determined HGB and the reticulocyte fraction of red blood cells increased the risk of NAFLD [odds ratio (OR) = 1.199, 95%CI: 1.087-1.322] and (OR = 1.157, 95%CI: 1.071-1.250). The results of the sensitivity analyses remained significant. CONCLUSION Novel causal blood cell traits related to liver enzymes and NAFLD development were revealed through Mendelian randomization analysis, which may facilitate the diagnosis and prevention of NAFLD.

Human-gray wolf conflict over livestock depredation and absence of mitigation measures is a key threat leading to the decline of wolf populations in Pakistan, where gray wolves are endangered. In this study, we collected data from January 2019 to September 2021, and human–wolf conflict and mitigation measures were investigated by interviews with 200 shepherds that were randomly selected from 43 different human settlements. We used binary logistic GLM models to predict landscape features related to gray wolf conflict patterns. Over the 3 years of the study, the gray wolf was responsible for 963 livestock losses and 244.50 million rupees (1,381,388.14 USD) in economic loss in summer, and 798 livestock losses along with 169.31 million rupees (956,608.1356 USD) economic loss in winter for the same 200 shepherds in Shigar valley. Our questionnaires revealed that shepherds hold negative attitudes toward the species when there is inadequate compensation by the several government department.

Global climate change has led to shifts in the distribution ranges of many terrestrial species, promoting their migration from lower altitudes or latitudes to higher ones. Meanwhile, successful invaders have developed genetic adaptations enabling the colonization of new environments. Over the past 40 years, Rattus tanezumi (RT) has expanded into northern China (Northwest and North China) from its southern origins. We studied the cold adaptation of RT and its potential for northward expansion by comparing it with sympatric Rattus norvegicus (RN), which is well adapted to cold regions. Through population genomic analysis, we revealed that the invading RT rats have split into three distinct populations: the North, Northwest, and Tibetan populations. The first two populations exhibited high genetic diversity, while the latter population showed remarkably low genetic diversity. These rats have developed various genetic adaptations to cold, arid, hypoxic, and high-UV conditions. Cold acclimation tests revealed divergent thermoregulation between RT and RN. Specifically, RT exhibited higher brown adipose tissue activity and metabolic rates than did RN. Transcriptome analysis highlighted changes in genes regulating triglyceride catabolic processes in RT, including Apoa1 and Apoa4, which were upregulated, under selection and associated with local adaptation. In contrast, RN showed changes in carbohydrate metabolism genes. Despite the cold adaptation of RT, we observed genotypic and phenotypic constraints that may limit its ability to cope with severe low temperatures farther north. Consequently, it is less likely that RT rats will invade and overlap with RN rats in farther northern regions.

The ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) of rodents play a substantial role in the communication and interaction between individuals; exhibit a high degree of complexity; and are influenced by a multitude of developmental, environmental, and phylogenetic factors. The functions of USVs are mainly studied in laboratory mice or rats. However, the behavioral relevance of USVs in wild rodents is poorly studied. In this work, we systematically investigated the vocal repertoire of the wild mouse Mus caroli and wild rat Rattus losea in multiple social or non-social contexts, e.g., pup-isolation, juvenile-play, paired opposite-sex encounter, female–female interaction, social-exploring, or foot-shock treatment. Unlike the laboratory mice, M. caroli, whose USVs were recorded during pup-isolation and courtship behaviors, did not produce any vocal sounds during juvenile-play and female–female interactions. R. losea, similar to laboratory rats, emitted USVs in all test situations. We found higher peak frequencies of USVs in both these two wild rodent species than in laboratory animals. Moreover, the parameters and structures of USVs varied significantly across different social or non-social contexts even within each species, confirming the context-sensitivity and complexity of vocal signals in rodents. We also noted a striking difference in call types between these two species: no downward type occurred in M. caroli, but no upward type occurred in R. losea, thereby highlighting the interspecific difference of vocal signals among rodents. Thus, the present study presents behavioral foundations of the vocalization context in wild mice and wild rats, and contributes to revealing the behavioral significance of widely used USVs in rodents.

The Himalayan marmot Marmota himalayana is widely distributed across the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and lives in social groups, yet the mating system of this highly social marmot species is unknown. In this study, the genetic mating system of Himalayan marmots was investigated using microsatellite markers to determine which mating strategies individuals employ. Results revealed that both monogamous and polygamous mating relationships occur in our study population, indicating that the genetic mating system of this marmot species is promiscuity. This study presents the first genetic evidence on the mating system for Himalayan marmots, yet indicates that further studies employing both a genetic and behavioral framework are needed to better understand the social structure and reproductive biology of this marmot species.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the key sensor molecules in vertebrates, trigger the innate immunity and prime the adaptive immune system. The TLR family of rodents, the largest order of mammals, typically contains 13 TLR genes. However, a clear picture of the evolution of the rodent TLR family has not yet emerged and the TLR evolutionary patterns are unclear in rodent clades. Here, we analyzed the natural variation and the evolutionary processes acting on the TLR family in rodents at both the interspecific and population levels. Our results showed that rodent TLRs were dominated by purifying selection, but a series of positively selected sites (PSSs) primarily located in the ligand-binding domain was also identified. The numbers of PSSs differed among TLRs, and nonviral-sensing TLRs had more PSSs than those in viral-sensing TLRs. Gene-conversion events were found between TLR1 and TLR6 in most rodent species. Population genetic analyses showed that TLR2, TLR8, and TLR12 were under positive selection in Rattus norvegicus and R. tanezumi, whereas positive selection also acted on TLR5 and TLR9 in the former species, as well as TLR1 and TLR7 in the latter species. Moreover, we found that the proportion of polymorphisms with potentially functional change was much lower in viral-sensing TLRs than in nonviral-sensing TLRs in both of these rat species. Our findings revealed the first thorough insight into the evolution of the rodent TLR genetic variability and provided important novel insights into the evolutionary history of TLRs over long and short timescales.

The ability to recognize and differentiate between conspecifics and heterospecifics as well as their signals is critical for the coexistence of closely related species. In the genus Rattus, species are morphologically similar and multiple species often coexist. Here, we investigated the interspecific recognition and signal differentiation of two sympatric rat species, the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus, RN) and the Asian house rat (Rattus tanezumi, RT). In a two-way choice test, both RN and RT females showed a preference for conspecific male rats to heterospecific ones. RT females showed a significant preference for accessible urine of males of same species to those of other species, but not for the inaccessible urine. On the other hand, there were significant differences in the structural characteristics of the ultrasonic vocalization emitted by males of these two rat species. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and isoelectric focusing electrophoresis unveiled that major urinary proteins (MUPs) in voided urine were more highly expressed in RN males versus RT males. The interspecific differences of urinary volatile compounds were also discussed. In conclusion, female rats had the ability to distinguish between males of either species.

The Asian house rat (AHR), Rattus tanezumi, has recently invaded the northern half of China. The AHR is a highly adaptive rat species that has also successfully conquered the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP) and replaced the brown rat (BR), R. norvegicus, at the edge of the QTP. Here, we assembled a draft genome of the AHR and explored the mechanisms of its northward invasion and the genetic basis underlying plateau adaptation in this species. Population genomic analyses revealed that the northwardly invasive AHRs consisted of two independent and genetically distinct populations which might result from multiple independent primary invasion events. One invasive population exhibited reduced genetic diversity and distinct population structure compared with its source population, while the other displayed preserved genetic polymorphisms and little genetic differentiation from its source population. Genes involved in G-protein coupled receptors and carbohydrate metabolism may contribute to the local adaptation of northern AHRs. In particular, RTN4 was identified as a key gene for AHRs in the QTP that favours adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia. Coincidently, the physiological performance and transcriptome profiles of hypoxia-exposed rats both showed better hypoxia adaptation in AHRs than in BRs that failed to colonize the heart of the QTP, which may have facilitated the replacement of the BR population by the invading AHRs at the edge of the QTP. This study provides profound insights into the multiple origins of the northwardly invasive AHR and the great tolerance to hypoxia in this species.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important initiators of innate immune responses that target host-pathogen interactions. However, further research into the molecular characteristics of TLRs in wild populations is required, as well as how TLRs genetically influenced pathogen infections in the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). Here, we explored the genetic characterization and evolution of 2 sensing nucleic acid TLRs (TLR7 and TLR8) and 2 sensing non-nucleic acid TLRs (TLR2 and TLR4) in the wild brown rat, and assessed their associations with 2 RNA viruses (Seoul hantavirus and rat hepatitis E virus (HEV)) and 2 bacteria (Leptospira and Bartonella). In these 4 TLRs, we discovered a total of 16 variants. Furthermore, TLR8 had high genetic diversity among 7 variants, while TLR2 had low genetic diversity with only 1 variant. According to selective pressure analyses, TLR4, TLR7, and TLR8 genes evolved under purifying selection. Interestingly, significant associations were found between 3 TLR8 variants and HEV infection, as well as 1 TLR2 variant and Bartonella infection. Overall, our findings provided a glimpse into the genetic characterization of TLRs in the brown rat, and further demonstrated that TLR2 and TLR8 genetic variations were related to Bartonella and HEV infection, respectively. Especially, TLR8 may be a good candidate immune gene for future research on molecular ecology and functional adaptation in wild populations.

Abstract Tylonycteris pachypus is a gregarious bat species with tens of individuals in a colony. The mechanisms by which mother bats recognize their pups and adult bats recognize each other are not clear. We hypothesized that such recognition is achieved by chemical discrimination and performed experiments to test the hypothesis. Results showed that mother bats were much more attracted to the scent from their own pups. For adult bats, females were attracted to the scent from both male and female groupmates but had a higher preference to the scent from female than from male groupmates. Male bats were much more attracted to the scent from male groupmates while showed no preference to the scent from female groupmates. Within a group, both female and male bats had no difference in preference to the scent from the same or opposite sex. These results suggest that mother–pup and groupmate recognition of T. pachypus can be achieved by olfactory cues.

Commensal rats (Rattus spp.), which are globally distributed, harbour many pathogens responsible for significant human diseases. Despite this, we have a poor understanding of the epidemiology and genetic diversity of some recently neglected zoonotic pathogens, such as Leptospira spp., Bartonella spp. and hepatitis E virus (HEV), which constitute a major public health threat. Thus, we surveyed the occurrences, co-infection and genetic diversity of these pathogens in 129 urban rats from China. For Rattus tanezumi, the prevalences of Leptospira spp., Bartonella spp. and HEV infection were 6.67%, 0% and 46.67%, respectively. The prevalences of Leptospira spp., Bartonella spp. and HEV infection were 57.89%, 9.65% and 57.89% for Rattus norvegicus respectively. Leptospira spp. and HEV infections were more likely to occur in mature R. norvegicus. Phylogenetic analyses showed that pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and Leptospira borgpetersenii might exist. We also found that Bartonella spp. showed high similarity to Bartonella elizabethae, Bartonella rochalimae and Bartonella tribocorum, which are implicated in human disease. Dual and triple infections were both detected. Moreover, dual infections with Leptospira spp. and HEV represented the most frequent co-infection, and there was a significantly positive association between them. High genetic diversity was observed in genes segments from Leptospira, Bartonella and HEV. Our results first discover the occurrence of multiple co-infections and genetic diversity of Leptospira, Bartonella and HEV in commensal rats from China. Altogether, the present study provides an insight into evaluating the risk of rat-borne zoonoses in urban China.

Seoul virus (SEOV), which causes hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in humans, has spread all over the world, especially in mainland China. Understanding basic mechanisms of SEOV evolution is essential to better combat and prevent viral diseases. Here, we examined SEOV prevalence and evolution in the residential area of four districts in Guangzhou city, China. The carriage of SEOV was observed in 33.33% of the sampled rodents, with 35.96% of the sampled Rattus norvegicus and 13.33% of R. tanezumi. Based on the comprehensive analyses of large (L), medium (M), and small (S) segments, our study first demonstrated that the genetic characterization of urban SEOV was shaped by high nucleotide substitution rates, purifying selection, and recombination. Additionally, we detected mutational saturation in the S segment of SEOV, which may lead to the biases of genetic divergence and substitution rates in our study. Importantly, we have filled the gap of SEOV evolution in the urban area. The genetic variation of SEOV may highlight the risk of HFRS, which merits further investigation.