Vigilance behavior serves as a critical adaptation for detecting predators and monitoring conspecifics. We investigated factors influencing vigilance patterns, measured as scanning behavior, in male and female golden snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) using 1089 5-min focal samples from a free-ranging, habituated group of 30 adults (6 adult males and 24 adult females) at Dalongtan, Shennongjia National Park, central China, during February-July and September-November 2022. Females exhibited high scanning levels in open habitat, when positioned farther from social partners, in smaller one-male, multifemale units (OMUs), and when they had vulnerable infants (infants under 6 months of age). Scanning was also positively correlated with relatedness among OMU members. Females exhibited the least scanning behavior during feeding. In contrast to females, males showed significantly higher levels of scanning, which increased with OMU size and distance from the OMU but exhibited no significant variation among habitats or activity states. Males primarily directed scanning toward rival males and females from other OMUs, suggesting a mate defense function. These results show distinct sex-specific functions of scanning behavior: females prioritize antipredator and infant protection strategies, while males focus on social vigilance and mate defense. Our findings highlight the interplay of ecological and social factors in shaping scanning behavior and the importance of considering sex differences in studies of primate behavior.

Human disturbances, such as habitat destruction and overharvesting, are greatly harming ecosystems and causing significant declines in biodiversity. Although protected areas play a crucial role in conserving terrestrial mammals, nearly non-protected areas (N-PAs) have similar functions, harbor high biodiversity and ecosystem integrity, and deserve to be protected. To identify the conservation value of mammalian species in critical ecosystems within N-PAs, we conducted a camera-trap survey in Luolong County, Tibet, from November 2019 to June 2023, monitoring 159 sites and documenting 25 mammalian species across 28 similar or dissimilar habitats. We found this area was an integrity ecosystem with higher species richness and diversity in scrub and evergreen forests with notable occurrence of herbivores comprising musk deer, chinese serow, woolly hares and carnivores such as the common leopard, snow leopards, red foxes and stone marten. Mammalian species occurrence increased away from human activities. Different habitats and seasons influenced diversity and species interactions. Key findings include species preferences for specific habitats, such as blue sheep on southern slopes during snow, musk deer in mixed forests, and red foxes avoiding alpine meadows. Habitat type, elevation, and human disturbance significantly impacted species distribution and behavior. The study also found that snow leopard activity time negatively correlates with woolly hare, while common leopards are influenced positively by hares and negatively by brown bears. Red foxes are slightly more active near the chinese serow occurrence areas. Other predators and prey, such as eurasian lynx, gray wolves, musk deer and stone martens show specific seasonal and interspecific interactions, with some relationships explaining small portions of variation. Overall, species temporal detection events are interconnected through complex ecological interactions. These findings improve our understanding of habitat hosting for rare species and the balance of endangered prey and predator communities in N-PAs in Tibet, emphasizing their significance for conservation efforts.

The evolutionary shift from arboreal to fossorial lifestyles, coupled with deep hibernation and high-altitude hypoxia tolerance, represents a suite of extreme physiological adaptations unique to ground squirrels. To investigate the molecular basis of these interconnected traits, we generated a chromosome-level genome of the Himalayan marmot (Marmota himalayana) and conducted comparative analyses across 11 squirrel species. Evolutionary breakpoint regions distinguishing arboreal from fossorial taxa were enriched in bone morphogenesis and motor nervous system genes, providing testable hypotheses for the fossorial transition. Positively selected genes in hibernating ground squirrels included circadian regulators, and a hibernator-specific TIMELESS Leu173Phe mutation enhanced PER2 binding in co-immunoprecipitation assays, offering a candidate mechanism for circadian dampening during torpor. In M. himalayana, a fixed EPAS1 Thr478Met variant reduced protein expression under hypoxia while upregulating LDHA and VEGF, revealing a fine-tuned strategy for high-altitude adaptation. Together, these findings provide molecular insights into three key evolutionary innovations with TIMELESS and EPAS1 variants are supported by functional validations and the fossorial transition representing comparative genomic hypotheses awaiting further testing. The authors sequence the Himalayan marmot genome and compare 11 squirrel species, revealing candidate genes underlying fossorial transition, a hibernator-specific TIMELESS mutation enhancing PER2 binding, and an EPAS1 variant tuning hypoxia adaptation.

Adaptive thermogenesis is a fundamental physiological process by which mammals maintain their body temperature through shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis to adapt to environmental changes. The activation of brown adipose tissue (BAT) is the core of non-shivering thermogenesis. However, the specific mechanisms by which gut-derived bacteria trigger BAT to activate adaptive thermogenesis remain poorly understood. Environmental variations across different altitudes create unique temperature gradients, providing an ideal condition for identifying bacteria associated with cold adaptation. In this study, we identified Pantoea ananatis, a highland-enriched bacterium, as a key species regulating adaptive thermogenesis and lipid metabolism in Macaca mulatta. Through multi-omics and gavage experiments, we discovered that the gut microbiota of high-altitude macaques can enhance the nutritional absorption capacity of the small intestine of mice, increase the concentration of propionic acid, activate the glycerolipid metabolism and strengthen lipid metabolism. Furthermore, we found that P. ananatis, as one of the main effect bacteria of the high-altitude gut microbiota, can activate BAT, reduce white adipose tissue (WAT) storage, and enhance triglyceride metabolism. Finally, we preliminarily verified that ferulic acid, as one of the potential effector metabolites of P. ananatis, also contributes to the reduction of WAT accumulation. Our work uncovers P. ananatis as a high-altitude-adapted potential probiotic that activates BAT and promotes systemic fat reduction through a gut microbiota-driven mechanism. This breakthrough provides a safe, effective alternative to cold-induced thermogenesis, with profound implications for obesity intervention.

Olfactory receptor (OR) genes constitute the largest gene family in mammalian genomes and play a central role in olfactory perception and ecological adaptation. Variation in OR gene repertoire size and functionality has been widely associated with differences in habitat, diet, and sensory reliance among species. However, the relative contributions of these ecological factors to OR gene evolution remain incompletely understood. In this study, we systematically analyzed the OR gene repertoires of 25 carnivoran species representing diverse ecological niches. Marine carnivores exhibited a pronounced reduction in intact OR genes and a significantly higher proportion of pseudogenes compared with terrestrial carnivores, indicating a relaxation of olfactory constraints following the transition to aquatic environments. Interestingly, despite being a terrestrial species, the giant panda displayed a similar pattern of OR gene degeneration to that observed in marine carnivores, characterized by a reduced number of intact OR genes and elevated ω values. Phylogenetic and selective pressure analyses further revealed that OR gene degeneration in the giant panda may reflect dietary specialization and reduced reliance on olfaction. Principal component analysis and multiple regression models suggested that dietary specialization and habitat breadth were significant predictors of OR gene repertoire variation across carnivorans. Together, our results indicate that the evolution of OR gene repertoires in carnivores is shaped not only by habitat transitions but also by ecological specialization, highlighting the complex interplay between environmental adaptation and sensory gene evolution.

Rapid climate change poses a severe threat to biodiversity, and phylogenetic diversity—a key metric capturing evolutionary uniqueness and adaptive potential—is critical for conservation. Integrating a well-resolved phylogenetic tree of 424 primate species, we combined spatial analysis and climate risk modeling to explore global spatiotemporal patterns of primates and assess their vulnerability under future climate scenarios. The results suggest a pronounced latitudinal pattern in primate distribution, with isothermality and annual mean precipitation as key drivers. Primate species in the American tropics (Mexico, Central, and South America) and southern China showed later divergence times and lower phylogenetic diversity, emerging as neo-hotspots for primates. Under future climate change, species in these neo-hotspots will face higher climate risks than those in paleo-hotspots of primate diversity. In addition, high human pressure, high climate risk, and limited protected area coverage increase species and population survival risks in hotspot regions. Overall, this global study deepens our understanding of biodiversity conservation under current climate change scenarios and synergistically advances the preservation of numerous natural services essential to ecosystem health and human well-being. Our study provides a spatially explicit framework to fulfill Targets 3 and 8 of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.

Carnivores frequently rely on scent and visual markings for intraspecific communication, delineating territorial boundaries, attracting mates and assessing competitors. However, studying such behaviours in rare and elusive species poses significant challenges. To enhance our understanding of the diel marking behaviours of common leopard (Panthera pardus), from November, 2019 to June, 2023, we conducted a comprehensive camera-trap survey in Luolong county of Tibet, China. Our monitoring encompassed 159 locations yielded 1,208 (excluded 700 unknown sex) individual leopard detections over 60,000 trap days, allowing us to quantify the frequency and temporal patterns of marking behaviours. Of these, 153 detections involved territorial marking in snowy conditions, while 355 occurred in snow-free environments. Female leopards in mixed forests and shrublands exhibited higher diurnal activity in snow-presence days. Male leopards engaged in a range of behaviours - including sniffing and rolling - primarily within mixed, coniferous and shrubland habitats. Male leopards engaged more frequently in behaviours such as sniffing, scraping, urine spraying, body rubbing, vocalizations, rolling and scat deposition with notable differences in scraping frequency compared to females. Female leopards displayed similar behaviours but at reduced levels particularly in scraping activities. The number of scrapes observed at camera-trap sites appears to be an indicator of leopard visitation rates suggesting its usefulness for optimizing monitoring efforts. Our findings contribute valuable insights into how environmental factors influence social communication strategies in leopards, enhance our understanding of male and female leopard territorial and making behaviours in various environments, and benefit for the conservation and monitoring of carnivore populations.

Knowledge of the mechanisms of species coexistence is crucial for biodiversity conservation. The tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus), alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster), and Chinese serow (Capricornis milneedwardsii) are all found in alpine ecosystems in Tibet, China. To investigate how these sympatric species achieve stable coexistence, we compared species distribution models and diurnal activity rhythms to analyze their spatial and temporal niche characteristics based on data collected from 186 camera traps set in Changdu prefecture. The results indicate he following: (1) In Changdu, the total area of suitable habitats for tufted deer, alpine musk deer and Chinese serow are 14,968 km2, 41,909 km2, and 36,954 km2, respectively. These areas represent approximately 13.62%, 38.14%, and 33.63% of the study area, respectively. (2) The total overlapping area of suitable habitats between tufted deer and alpine musk deer is 5102 km2. The total overlapping area of suitable habitats between tufted deer and Chinese serow is 6483 km2. Additionally, the total overlapping area of suitable habitats between alpine musk deer and Chinese serow amounts to 26,869 km2. (3) The overlap index for daily activity rhythms between tufted deer and alpine musk deer is 0.88—this difference is statistically significant (p < 0.001). Similarly, the overlap index for daily activity rhythms between tufted deer and Chinese serow is 0.82—also significantly different (p < 0.001). Lastly, the overlap index for daily activity rhythms between alpine musk deer and Chinese serow is 0.76—again showing a significant difference (p < 0.001). The results provide valuable insight into conservation strategies aimed at preserving populations and habitats of tufted deer, alpine musk deer, and Chinese serow while contributing to a deeper understanding of resource partitioning mechanisms as well as population dynamics among coexisting species.

The habitats of the Chinese red pandas (Ailurus styani) have been significantly reduced and fragmented in human-dominated landscapes. Scientific habitat assessment, corridor planning, and identification of conservation gaps are essential for ensuring the long-term sustainability of this bamboo-dependent species. To address these issues, we used Ensemble and InVEST models to analyze the distribution and quality of habitats for Chinese red pandas in southwestern China, with a particular emphasis on core habitat connectivity and conservation gaps. Our results indicate that the habitats are not only highly fragmented but also of low quality, with human disturbance and climate change identified as the primary drivers of habitat degradation. Of the total 12,219.5 km2 of suitable habitat, only 47.75 % falls within the boundaries of the Giant Panda National Park. We identified 11 core habitat patches covering a total area of 3,767.7 km2, of which 70.9 % are protected, leaving 1,102.9 km2 as conservation gaps that require urgent protection and restoration efforts. Additionally, we designed 12 cost-effective ecological corridors connecting these core patches, with an average length of 29.1 km, which should be prioritized in future conservation planning. Our findings highlight that the Chinese red pandas in southwestern China survives in a highly fragmented landscape with weak connectivity. This study enhances the accuracy of identifying conservation priority areas and protection gaps, and recommends that the existing Chinese red pandas populations be managed as a regional metapopulation to ensure their long-term survival in human-dominated landscapes.

The unique environment of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau provides a great opportunity to study how primate intestinal microorganisms adapt to ecosystems. The 16S rRNA gene amplicon and metagenome analysis were conducted to investigate the correlation between gut microbiota in primates and other sympatric animal species living between 3600 and 4500 m asl. Results showed that within the same geographical environment, Macaca mulatta and Rhinopithecus bieti exhibited a gut microbiome composition similar to that of Tibetan people, influenced by genetic evolution of host, while significantly differing from other distantly related animals. The gut microbiota of plateau species has developed similar strategies to facilitate their hosts’ adaptation to specific environments, including broadening its dietary niche and enhancing energy absorption. These findings will enhance our comprehension of the significance of primate gut microbiota in adapting to specific habitats. Analyses of gut microbiomes from sympatric animals of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and comparison with Tibetan human gut microbiomes reveals the impact of host phylogeny on gut microbiota composition.

ABSTRACT Background Globally, approximately 60% of primate taxa are in danger of extinction and the population of 75% of primate species are declining in their natural habitats. The Endangered R. roxellana hubeiensis monkeys in Shennongjia National Park face threats due to their limited genetic diversity and restricted habitat. Method Our study aimed to assess the health of these monkeys through focal animal sampling observations of 90 individuals from June 2023 to July 2024. Additionally, we compared the prevalence of health concerns on days with and without snow. We identified health issues in 32 individuals (46%), including wounds, signs suggesting disease, and deaths. Results Nine lactating females one juvenile and one infant had eye injuries. We noticed three females and one male exhibiting symptoms of eye diseases. We observed that one adult male and three females showed signs of respiratory disease, while three females exhibited signs of skin disease. We found that one adult male and three females indicated signs of respiratory disease and three females showed signs of skin disease. We found that seven monkeys of different ages, including adults, juveniles and infants, died from injuries, diseases and unknown causes. Respiratory and skin disease symptoms were more common on snowy days than on non‐snowy days. Additionally, physical and eye injuries were also more prevalent on snowy days. Conclusions In general, our study investigated the health status of Shennongjia golden snub‐nosed monkeys and found signs of disease, wounds, and death. Our study also highlighted health issues in monkeys, which can help guide conservation efforts to ensure their survival in their natural habitats.

Climate change and human activities drive migration, contraction, and expansion of species distribution. The scarcity of data on the distribution dynamics of the Chinese red panda (Ailurus styani) presents a substantial challenge for governments in formulating effective conservation strategies. This study used 11 habitat modeling techniques within the Biomod2 framework to analyze the spatiotemporal change trends in habitat of Chinese red panda in Sichuan Province, China. The results indicate that habitat of the Chinese red panda increase by 35.05 % from 2003 to 2013; however, it decrease by 37.42 % from 2013 to 2023. Further analysis reveal that human activities are the primary driver of habitat loss in 2013-2023, while climatic factors likely contribute to habitat expansion in 2003-2013. Projections under future climate scenarios suggest that the habitat may expand 29.67 % by 2050 and 21.25 % by 2070, reflecting a climate-induced spatial redistribution of habitat. Specifically, future habitat expansion is predominantly projected outside the Giant Panda National Park, at high-altitude regions averaging 2981.4 +/- 284.5 m; in contrast, habitat contraction is concentrated within the park at lower elevations averaging 2117.3 +/- 414.4 m. This shift reflects an adaptive response to cooler and more stable climatic conditions, yet simultaneously intensifies risks of habitat fragmentation and population isolation. These emerging patterns present significant challenges for ecosystem-based conservation and management efforts focused on endangered species. Therefore, we urge immediate actions, including expanding national park networks, reinforcing ecological protection red line designations, enhancing the Natural Forest Protection Program, and implementing integrated ecosystem conservation strategies to mitigate potential adverse impacts.

The responses of nonhuman primates towards conspecific deaths in the wild, and the activities of carnivores scavenging the corpses, are different but interconnected thanatological and ecological aspects of wildlife mortality. We report the first thanatological events observed in a wild, multilevel group of Myanmar or black snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus strykeri [R. strykeri]) and mesocarnivores scavenging on a monkey carcass in the Pianma region, near the China-Myanmar border. We detected two freshly deceased carcasses during field surveys. The group members visited the location of their recently deceased conspecific twice and variously looked down at the carcass, emitted alarm calls and unusual contact calls, hugged social partners and prevented approaches by individuals from other social units. These behaviors suggest strong bonds and emotional reactions to the death of a companion in R. strykeri. Infrared camera trapping revealed the Siberian weasel (Mustela sibirica) as the principal scavenger on the carcass, followed by the yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula). Siberian weasels showed greater activity levels and time spent feeding on the R. strykeri carcass when it was fresh, while remaining vigilant for potential competitors and predators. After the carcass was largely consumed and decayed, both frequency and duration of feeding and vigilance behaviors decreased.

Despite intensified global efforts in wildlife conservation, livestock grazing remained a critical factor driving habitat changes. The quantitative studies specifically addressing the impact of grazing on the habitat changes of giant (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and red pandas (Ailurus styani) were notably scarce. To address this knowledge gap, we used grazing data, environmental variables, and animal locations to evaluate the habitat preferences and spatial utilization patterns of giant and red pandas. The research results indicated that the preferred habitat of giant pandas progressively contracted as grazing intensity increased, whereas that of red pandas gradually expanded. However, the habitat suitability index (HSI) for both species declined. Furthermore, the spatial overlap degree in preferred habitats and the contribution of grazing factors in the habitat evaluation model progressively increased as grazing intensity increased. Our research also revealed that livestock was predominantly distributed in the marginal areas with the giant and red pandas. To mitigate grazing disturbance, giant and red pandas exhibited divergent habitat selection patterns. Specifically, red pandas tended to favor lower-altitude areas with steeper terrain under grazing pressure; giant pandas preferred steeper areas regardless of altitude. This study confirmed that grazing was a critical factor influencing the habitat selection of both giant and red pandas. Mitigating grazing pressure through targeted management interventions could significantly reduce this impact, offering a viable strategy for enhancing habitat conservation in the future. Our findings underscored the critical importance for wildlife protection departments in southwestern China to exercise greater caution when formulating and implementing grazing policies.

We measured the alert distance (AD), flight-initiation distance (FID), buffer distance (BD), and distance fled (DF) of Himalayan marmots (Marmota himalayana) from four populations experiencing human disturbances of the same persistence but different intensities when subjected to varied stimuli (a running or walking man with or without a leashed dog and a dog alone). We analyzed the effects of different stimuli on the AD, FID, BD, and DF of marmots from each population and the relationship among the AD, FID, and DF to illustrate the escape strategy diversification of the studied marmots for different human disturbances when disturbed by varied stimuli. We found that intra-population diversification emerged when the marmots were threatened by different stimuli. The AD and FID were shorter when an individual was walking toward than when he was running toward the focal marmots. A man with a leashed dog as a stimulus produced a similar result to that of a man alone. Nevertheless, no diversification emerged when a single dog was the threat, and all three distances triggered due to the dog were significantly shorter than those triggered due to a man alone (walking or running) or a man with a leashed dog approaching the marmots. Inter-population diversification also emerged when the marmots from the four populations were disturbed by the same stimulus: when threatened by an individual or a man with a leashed dog, their escape behavior was determined by the intensity of the disturbance. The changes in the AD and FID were similar across all four populations, with the two distances increasing with the decrease in disturbance intensity, but the DF showed no significant variation across all the four areas. No significant inter-population diversification emerged when the marmots were threatened by a single dog. These diversifications may result from the different levels of habituation of marmots to human disturbances and the different sizes and, consequently, visibilities of humans and dogs.

Unprotected areas with endangered species generally face severe human disturbance. Domestic dogs are a special form of human disturbance and are sympatrically distributed with critically endangered Chinese pangolins in remote mountainous regions of Guangdong, China. Conflicts in habitat utilization between domestic dogs and Chinese pangolins have rarely been evaluated, yet these conflicts might result in a decline in population viability in the wild. To address how domestic dogs affect Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla) in spatiotemporal niches, we used camera traps to obtain information on the distribution and activity of Chinese pangolins and GPS collars to track free-ranging domestic dog activity in the Wuqinzhang and Pengzhai forest areas of Guangdong, China. Combined with environmental variables, we used individual and cave locations to predict a potentially suitable habitat for Chinese pangolins with Maxent. We used the minimum convex polygon method (MCP) to obtain the home ranges of the domestic dogs. Then, we calculated the overlap between the potentially suitable habitat for Chinese pangolins and the home ranges of free-ranging domestic dogs. In the temporal niche, we compared the daily activity rhythms between domestic dogs and Chinese pangolins and assessed the influences of domestic dogs on Chinese pangolins through avoidance–attraction ratios (AARs). Our results show that the potentially suitable habitat of the Chinese pangolin comprises only approximately 24% of the Wuqinzhang forest area and 12% of the Pengzhai forest area. The percentages of habitat overlap were approximately 48% and 71% in the Wuqinzhang and Pengzhai forest areas, respectively. There was less overlap in the temporal niche between Chinese pangolins and free-ranging domestic dogs, but their AAR was significant. Our results reveal that the Chinese pangolin is facing severe disturbances from free-ranging domestic dogs in spatial niches in unprotected areas. We suggest that assessments of Chinese pangolins’ survival status should be conducted as soon as possible, especially in unprotected areas. To expand and optimize established nature reserves for the Chinese pangolin, further strengthening of domestic dog management is necessary.

The dual impact of climate change and human activities has led to a sharp decline in global primate biodiversity.China,which has the most diverse primate species in the northern hemisphere,faces severe eco-logical threats during its transition from an agricultural to a modern society due to the expansion of modern ag-riculture,over-exploitation and consumption of natural resources,and excessive land development.In re-sponse,China has implemented various ecological conservation measures,including habitat restoration and protection.These efforts have made substantial progress in biodiversity conservation,with certain regions see-ing an increase in primate populations.This study conducted a systematic review of historical documents and field research data related to Chinese primates,evaluating the endangered status of primate species in China.Despite improvements in the habitats of most primate species and some population growth,many species still face severe threats,including declining and small populations.Species such as the Myanmar snub-nosed mon-key(Rhinopithecus strykeri),eastern black crested gibbon(Nomascus nasutus),and Hainan gibbon(N.hainanus)remain particularly vulnerable due to their limited distribution ranges and extremely small popula-tions.Insufficient scientific data,fragmented information,and a lack of comprehensive studies in conservation biology further exacerbate these challenges.Additionally,there is a notable lack of detailed population monito-ring data for species such as the Bengal slow loris(Nycticebus bengalensis),Pygmy slow loris(N.pygmae-us),Indochinese gray langur(Trachypithecus crepusculus),Shortridge's langur(T.shortridgei),and capped langur(T.pileatus),hindering the development of practical and targeted conservation management strategies.Therefore,for national biodiversity conservation,there is an urgent need for specialized primate surveys,enhanced habitat protection and restoration,and increased focus on cross-border conservation strate-gies and regional cooperation.Establishing a comprehensive and systematic research database platform,con-ducting continuous and in-depth research in primate biology.Additionally,strengthening public awareness on wildlife conservation remains essential.Such integrated and systematic efforts will provide scientific support for the current and future conservation and management of primate species in China.

Aims:At present,few studies have been conducted on the behavior of wild forest musk deer(Moschus berezovskii).Therefore,we aim to construct an ethogram and posture-act-environment(PAE)coding system for M.berezovskii to improve our fundamental understanding of this species'behavior. Methods:Infrared camera monitoring data collected at Hupingshan National Nature Reserve in Hunan Province from April 2019 to June 2023 were classified and summarized.Referring to commonly used animal behavior coding methods in China,the behavior spectrum and PAE coding system of M.berezovskii were established with'posture-act-environment'.These behavioral data were statistically analyzed and the behavioral diversity index was calculated to analyze differences in behavior across seasons,genders,age groups,and habitats. Results:A total of 845 valid photos and 133 videos of wild M.berezovskii were identified,and 7 postures,65 acts and 32 behaviors of M.berezovskii were distinguished and recorded from this video data.These records cover all common daily behaviors of M.berezovskii.We found differences in the behavioral diversity index in different seasons,with the highest diversity indice in spring(Hspring=0.8922,rspring=0.3850),followed by summer(Hsummer=0.7954,rsummer=0.3432),autumn(Hautumn=0.7775,rautumn=0.3355),and lastly,winter(Hwinter=0.5094,rwinter=0.2198).The behaviors of males,females and juvenile were significantly different.Three types of behaviors were not recorded in juvenile(tagging behavior,elimination behavior,and self-directed).Females performed more self-directed behaviors,and males displayed unique marking behaviors.The behavioral diversity index of females(Hfemales=0.6338)was greater than males(Hmales=0.5814),and lowest for juvenile(Hjuvenile=0.3816).Among habitat types,the behavioral diversity index of M.berezovskii in mixed broadleaf-conifer forest was the highest,and the ingestive behavior is the predominant behavior displayed,regardless of habitat type. Conclusion:This study provides the behavioral spectrum and a behavior spectrum and PAE coding system of wild M.berezovskii for the first time.Our results provide vital foundational data paving the way to further research on behavioral ecology and conservation management of M.berezovskii.

Sperm characterization is an important part of reproductive biology and is particularly important for the conservation of endangered species in the wild. However, research on this aspect of the Chinese pangolin, an endangered species from mainland China, was extremely limited. Therefore, the present study fills the gap in this research area by first systematically providing the sperm collection methods and the characteristics of the spermatozoa of Chinese pangolin. The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) is a critically endangered species. However, there is a paucity of research on the male reproductive gamete biology of this species. The present study was the first to systematically analyse the sperm characterization of the Chinese pangolin, including semen collection, sperm morphometry and ultrastructure. The semen of five male Chinese pangolins was successfully collected using the electroejaculation method. CASA (computer-assisted sperm analysis) was used to assess semen quality and take images for sperm morphometric analysis. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were used for sperm ultrastructure observation. The results showed that the semen of the Chinese pangolin was yellow to pale yellow in colour, viscous, with a fishy odour, and a slightly alkaline pH of between 7.7 and 7.9. The head defects were the main sperm defects; there were 13 kinds of head defects counted in this study. The total sperm length, head length, head width and tail length were 67.62 +/- 0.21 mu m, 10.47 +/- 0.06 mu m, 1.33 +/- 0.006 mu m and 57.16 +/- 0.20 mu m, respectively. SEM observed that the spermatozoa had a rod-shaped head with a distinct apical ridge, which was different from most mammals and similar to that in avians and reptiles. Interestingly, TEM found that the acrosome membrane of the Chinese pangolin had a double membrane structure rather than a multiple bi-lamellar membrane structure as reported by the previous study. Collectively, this study contributes to the development of artificial breeding efforts and assisted reproductive techniques for the Chinese pangolin, as well as providing technical support for research on germplasm conservation of this species.

DEAR EDITOR,The Myanmar or black snub-nosed monkey（Rhinopithecus strykeri） is a recently discovered and critically endangered colobus primate with an unknown gut microbiota. Here, we characterized and compared the gut microbiota of R. strykeri with those of two closely related snub-nosed monkey species,