This study examines how exposure to China's 'Later, Longer, Fewer' (LLF) fertility campaign affected female employment across different stages of their life cycle. Using province-by-cohort variation in policy exposure and retrospective life histories from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), we find that LLF exposure reduced fertility and increased formal employment during their prime working years (ages 25-49) but reduced employment for women in their 50s. Meanwhile, LLF exposure did not significantly affect female labour-force participation (LFP) during prime working years. Mediation analysis suggests that the shift towards formal employment during prime working years fully explains the later-life employment decline, which is consistent with the statutory retirement eligibility. The findings highlight how fertility policy can reshape long-run labour supply through the type of employment rather than overall prime-age LFP.

Women’s fertility and employment decisions are closely linked, and both may be influenced by the availability of childcare. We investigate the role of grandparent coresidence—a potential source of childcare—in maternal employment, focusing on differences between Asian and non-Hispanic white women in the United States. Specifically, we examine whether the higher share of Asians living in an intergenerational household can account for why the maternal employment gap is smaller among Asian women than among their white counterparts. We also explore whether differences in characteristics among the older generation help explain this difference in the maternal employment gap. We find that living in an intergenerational household is positively related to employment among Asian women, on average, whereas the opposite is the case among white women. Furthermore, we find that having a coresident grandparent appears to be an important contributor to the smaller maternal employment gap among Asians. In addition, grandparent coresidence is more strongly related to maternal employment among foreign-born women than among US natives, suggesting that immigrants may be more likely to bring over their parents if they need childcare.

Executive Summary Assessing the impact of policies offering in-state tuition and financial aid to undocumented immigrant youth is highly pertinent from a policy perspective. Eligible immigrants arrived as children and the United States is often the only home they have ever known. Without the right to stay or a path to citizenship, they cannot achieve their full potential as productive members of society. Policies improving access to higher education have the potential to elevate their social mobility and amplify economic contributions by improving job prospects and bolstering tax revenues. Since 2001, roughly half of the U.S. states have expanded in-state college tuition benefits to undocumented immigrants. Around one-third of states have also provided financial aid; yet approximately one-tenth have imposed heightened barriers to accessing higher education. While early studies found an increase in enrollment in states with in-state tuition policies, recent studies accounting for additional state policies found no impact on enrollment. These results mask varying impacts based on gender and marital status. We assess these policies, control for Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA), and analyze the impact of in-state tuition on college enrollment, graduation rates, employment, and self-employment. Our analysis relies on data from the 2005 to 2019 American Community Survey. To identify individuals who are the most likely to be undocumented and affected by the policy, we focus on noncitizen Hispanic youth, excluding those likely authorized (e.g., licensed professionals, veterans, and refugees). That said, we are assuming that state policies are the same for all undocumented residents, not just the Hispanics in our sample. Our findings are as follows: - In our sample, there are 17,649 likely undocumented Hispanic men (14,249 women) aged 18–22 years who completed high school and arrived in the U.S. prior to age 16 years. Approximately 75 percent of them are Mexican. - The data reveals that approximately 30 percent of men are enrolled in college. Access to in-state tuition boosts enrollment by 7.2 percentage points for Hispanic men and by 13.2 percentage points for Mexican men. This response is driven by married men. Men in general do not graduate at higher rates. - Women enroll in college at the same rate across states. However, access to lower tuition raises graduation rates by 4.7 percentage points, representing nearly a 30 percent increase compared to the average graduation rate of 15.7 percent, particularly among single women. - Among men with access to in-state tuition, single men are more likely to be self-employed, while married men respond to the policy by working less, consistent with higher enrollment rates. - On average 55 percent of single women are employed. Access to in-state tuition increases employment by 12–19.8 percentage points for single women. We find no significant impact of the policy on the employment of married women. Our research indicates that while in-state tuition policies do make a difference, there is a need for a more nuanced policy approach, particularly due to gender disparities among the intended beneficiaries, which have previously been overlooked. However, we argue that relying solely on in-state tuition policies is insufficient. Single women are driven by these policies to complete their degrees and pursue employment. If policymakers aim for a broader impact and seek to include a more diverse group of undocumented youth, including men, they should consider enhancing opportunities within formal labor markets after college graduation. In support of this argument, we document higher graduation and employment rates and lower self-employment rates among DACA-eligible youth who have legal access to formal employment.

Nearly 25 percent of total worldwide remittances each year originate in the United States. During the Covid-19 pandemic, worldwide remittances fell precipitously in the first half of 2020, and then recovered in the second half. Thus, there has been a tremendous amount of resiliency in aggregate remittance flows since the onset of the pandemic, though country-specific experiences have varied. In this paper, we study the response of remittance flows to U.S.-specific shocks during the pandemic, such as changes in U.S. deaths, U.S. unemployment in migrant-intensive industries, U.S. unemployment insurance and personal current transfer receipts. Using both panel vector autoregressive (panel VAR) and global vector autoregressive (global VAR) models, along with monthly data from 2018 to 2021, we find that remittance flows into emerging markets decline sharply in response to U.S. unemployment shocks across industries and to shocks in U.S. deaths. However, flows recover quickly after one to two months. Due to the large immigrant presence and proximity to the United States, the most sizable remittance response is detected in Latin America. The response to U.S. fiscal stimulus is net positive. Combining both models provides insights on the direct effect of U.S. shocks on remittance flows with the panel VAR, as well as the impact within the context of a global system of countries and global factors that may adversely affect all countries in the system with the global VAR, as seen during Covid-19. We contribute to the literature by studying the macroeconomic impact of the U.S. reaction to the pandemic for countries that are large recipients of remittances originating from the United States.

This study documents increased life expectancy among elderly parents in China whose adult children were exposed to the "Later, Longer, Fewer" (LLF) family planning campaign in the 1970s. We leverage the variation in policy exposure at the province, urban, and birth-cohort level to understand the extent to which the LLF campaign has affected social networks and intergenerational support for elderly parents. The plausible channels that may impact life expectancy are living arrangements, visits, and financial transfers. Using the 2011 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, we identify adults of childbearing age who were exposed to the LLF campaign and whose fertility was reduced. We find that greater LLF exposure increases the likelihood of the wife's parents co-residing in her household. The increase in elderly support, however, is largely manifested through more visits and financial transfers from their sons' families, which is unsurprising in a patrilineal society. Most gains are driven by rural households.

Preface 1: Why Study Immigration? 2: Who Becomes an Immigrant? 3: Where Immigrants Go 4: Labor Market Effects: Theory 5: Labor Market Effects: Evidence 6: Effects on Other Markets 7: Fiscal Effects 8: Assimilation 9: The Second Generation 10: Immigration Policy 11: Immigration in a Global Context: Developed Countries 12: Immigration in a Global Context: Developing Countries 13: Conclusion