Beef production extends over almost half of Australia, with about 47,000 cattle producers that contribute about 20% ($A12.7 billion gross value of production) of the total value of farm production in Australia. Australia is one of the world's most efficient producers of cattle and was the world's third largest beef exporter in 2016. The Australian beef industry had 25 million head of cattle in 2016-17, with a national beef breeding herd of 11.5 million head. Australian beef production includes pasture-based cow-calf systems, a backgrounding or grow-out period on pasture, and feedlot or pasture finishing. Feedlot finishing has assumed more importance in recent years to assure the eating quality of beef entering the relatively small Australian domestic market, and to enhance the supply of higher value beef for export markets. Maintenance of Australia's preferred status as a quality assured supplier of high value beef produced under environmentally sustainable systems from 'disease-free' cattle is of highest importance. Stringent livestock and meat quality regulations and quality assurance systems, and productivity growth and efficiency across the supply chain to ensure price competiveness, are crucial for continued export market growth in the face of increasing competition. Major industry issues, that also represent research, development and adoption priorities and opportunities for the Australian beef industry have been captured within exhaustive strategic planning processes by the red meat and beef industries. At the broadest level, these issues include consumer and industry support, market growth and diversification, supply chain efficiency, productivity and profitability, environmental sustainability, and animal health and welfare. This review provides an overview of the Australian beef industry including current market trends and future prospects, and major issues and opportunities for the continued growth, development and profitability of the industry.

Looking towards 2050, it is clear that substantial increases in agricultural production efficiency are required to feed and clothe the projected growth in global population. To meet this need, we are likely to witness profound changes in sheep production systems and practices. These changes and associated challenges have been discussed in previous chapters. The expected main production trends include a decline in pastoralism and a commensurate intensification of the whole or part of the production system, along with an increase in the scale of individual sheep enterprises. Key drivers underpinning these trends include the need for increased output to meet consumer demand, increased capacity to mitigate and manage environmental variation in the quality of sheep products in the face of the effects of climate change, optimised labour and resource use efficiency, and proactive response to societal expectations for good sheep welfare. These expected shifts in the way sheep are farmed have the potential to yield both positive and negative impacts to animal welfare (discussed further later). Getting the balance right in terms of on-farm productivity and sustainability will be a major challenge for sheep industries in the future.

Motivation tests have been used to assess the strength of an animals drive to obtain specific resources and, indirectly to gain insight into the animal's welfare state as it is likely that chronic high motivation for unobtainable resources leads to diminished welfare. A variety of measures have been used to assess motivation with behavioural demand functions being a relatively common one. However, there are several different measures of demand and it is not clear which method is best for assessing resource need. We compared the following measures of demand; maximum price paid; number of rewards consumed, two measures from a linear-elasticity model estimating (P-max, cost at which maximum responding occurs; O-max, maximum work done at P-max); and a measure (alpha value) from an exponential demand model as sheep worked to obtain food. To assess the role of energy balance in driving motivation in demand tests, we also estimated the cost (distance walked) at zero energy balance i.e. where energy intake was expected to equal energy expended. If energy balance alone was controlling motivation we predicted that the sheep would stop walking at this point. Eight Merino sheep were required to walk for a 4 g food reward following either a 14h food deprivation or no food deprivation (control), in a cross-over design. The distance (cost) that the sheep were required to walk (1.5 to 105m) was increased progressively on a log scale. The number of rewards obtained reduced as the cost increased (P<0.001), and more rewards were acquired by food-deprived animals (P<0.01). The treatment differences for numbers of rewards obtained were significant at the shorter costs (1.5 m, P<0.05; 6.1 m, P<0.05; 12.3 m, P<0.01). Energy balance was estimated as the difference between energy consumed and energy expended (maintenance and activity) and differed between food-deprived treatments at the 1.5 (P<0.01) and 6.1 m (P<0.05) costs. There was also a trend for treatment differences at the 12.3 (P=0.06) and 24.9 m (P=0.1) costs. The costs at estimated zero energy balance and at P-max were similar (between 30 and 39 m, P>0.05) for both treatments. This indicates that sheep showed a reduced motivation for food after the point of zero energy balance, but continued walking beyond this estimate. The motivation measure derived from the exponential model (alpha value) showed that food-deprived animals were more motivated to obtain a food reward (P=0.02). Motivation measures derived from the linear-elasticity model did not differ between treatments. This suggests that measures of demand using the exponential demand model may be more sensitive than measures using the linear-elasticity model when assessing small changes in reward value. Further, these results suggest that, in a demand test with food as a reinforcer, energy is a component of the 'currency' used by the animal when balancing effort against reward. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The temperament of ewes and maternal behaviour at lambing has been implicated as contributing factors to lamb survival. Some 14 054 records of maternal behaviour score (MBS, 1 = good, 5 = poor) were collected at lamb tagging from 32 breeds of sheep over several years in a variety of environments. Records for two objectively scored temperament traits, flight time from a weighing crate (FT) and agitation score in an isolation box test (IBT) were available on 19 151 and 17 159 animals, respectively. These data were pooled from three sources, which included research and commercial ram breeding flocks. The combined data were also split into three subsets based on breed groups (Merino, Maternal and Terminal) for analyses. Records of weights and number of lambs weaned (NLW), as well as pedigree information was available from the national genetic evaluation database. The heritability estimates from the combined analyses were 0.20 ± 0.02 for MBS, 0.18 ± 0.02 for FT and 0.26 ± 0.02 for IBT, with a repeatability of 0.24 ± 0.01 for MBS. There were some small differences between the breed groups in the heritability estimates. The genetic correlations between FT and MBS were negative (favourable) and consistent across the datasets (–0.47 ± 0.12, combined analysis). The genetic correlations between IBT and MBS were positive (favourable) but not significant (0.12 ± 0.11, combined analysis). The genetic correlations between IBT and FT were also favourable, but small and generally not significant. There were small favourable genetic correlations between MBS and various bodyweights (–0.17 ± 0.07, yearling) and NLW (–0.25 ± 0.07). However, there were no significant genetic relationships between the temperament and production traits. The moderate heritability and repeatability of MBS indicate maternal behaviour could be improved by selection, and that it could be a useful additional trait in breeding programs for improved reproduction.

•Surgical and ring castration compared in unweaned 3- and 6-month-old beef calves.•During procedures surgical castration was more painful/stressful than applying rings.•Inflammation and wound healing indicated better welfare in surgical vs. ring castrates.•Few differences between age groups.•Calf behavioural responses may be confounded by temporary separation from dam.

Affective states can be evaluated by assessing shifts in the animal's expectation of a positive and negative outcome in response to ambiguous cues, also known as judgement bias (JB). The aim of this study was to use a JB methodology, using a go/go type of task where animals are required to make an active choice, to assess the effects of acute stress on affective states in hens. Thirty ISA-Brown hens were trained in a two-choice (left-right) test in an arena to associate a high-value (H) reward (four mealworms) with a 100% black and a low-value (L) reward (one mealworm) with 5% black (visually white) cues. Twenty hens that learnt the tasks were randomly allocated to either a control (C) or stress (S; 5 min social isolation in a novel environment) group. During testing, hens were presented with H and L (rewarded) and three novel ambiguous (un-rewarded) cues: 75%, 50% and 25% black. Order of cue presentation was balanced between treatments to either having ambiguous cues always preceded by L cues (L-Ambiguous) or by H cues (H-Ambiguous). Latency to approach a reward and active choice made (i.e. reaching side associated with either H or L reward) were recorded. Data are log-transformed least square mean (LSmean) latencies(s) +/- SEM with back-transformed LSmean in parentheses. Latency data showed that S-hens were faster to approach a reward cue than C-hens (S 0.8 (2.3) +/- 0.04 vs C 0.9 (2.6) +/- 0.04(s), P<0.05). Hens were faster to approach H and 75% than 25% and L cues (H = 0.7 (2.0) +/- 0.04 and 75% = 0.7 (2.0) +/- 0.07 (s)vs 25% = 1.1 (2.9) +/- 0.07 and L=1.1 (3.1) +/- 0.04 (s), P<0.05) with intermediate responses to 50% cues (50% = 0.8 (2.3) +/- 0.07 (s)).S-hens were faster to approach ambiguous cues preceded by an H reward compared to C-hens (S H-Ambiguous = 0.7 (1.9) +/- 0.06, S L-Ambiguous = 1.0 (2.7) +/- 0.06, C H-Ambiguous = 0.9 (2.4) +/- 0.06 and C L-Ambiguous = 1.0 (2.7) +/- 0.06 (s), P<0.05). Active choice was not affected by treatment. These results show that acute stress enhances sensitivity to a previously rewarding outcome without affecting judgement bias in laying hens. Hens are sensitive to events occurring immediately before the test and the order in which cues are presented and these issues should be considered in future studies. (C) 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Tension banding castration of cattle is gaining favour because it is relatively simple to perform and is promoted by retailers of the banders as a humane castration method. Two experiments were conducted, under tropical conditions using Bos indicus bulls comparing tension banding (Band) and surgical (Surgical) castration of weaner (7-10 months old) and mature (22-25 months old) bulls with and without pain management (NSAID (ketoprofen) or saline injected intramuscularly immediately prior to castration). Welfare outcomes were assessed using a range of measures; this paper reports on some physiological, morbidity and productivity-related responses to augment the behavioural responses reported in an accompanying paper. Blood samples were taken on the day of castration (day 0) at the time of restraint (0 min) and 30 min (weaners) or 40 min (mature bulls), 2h, and 7h; and days 1, 2, 3, 7, 14,21 and 28 post-castration. Plasmas from day 0 were assayed for cortisol, creatine kinase, total protein and packed cell volume. Plasmas from the other samples were assayed for cortisol and haptoglobin (plus the 0 min sample). Liveweights were recorded approximately weekly to 6 weeks and at 2 and 3 months post-castration. Castration sites were checked at these same times to 2 months post-castration to score the extent of healing and presence of sepsis. Cortisol concentrations (mean s.e. nmol/L) were significantly (P< 0.05) higher in the Band (67 +/- 4.5) compared with Surgical weaners (42 +/- 4.5) at 2h post-castration, but at 24 h post-castration were greater in the Surgical (43 +/- 3.2) compared with the Band weaners (30 +/- 3.2). The main effect of ketoprofen was on the cortisol concentrations of the mature Surgical bulls; concentrations were significantly reduced at 40 min (47 +/- 7.2 vs. 71 +/- 7.2 nmol/L for saline) and 2 h post-castration (24 +/- 7.2, vs. 87 +/- 7.2 nmol/L for saline). Ketoprofen, however, had no effect on the Band mature bulls, with their cortisol concentrations averaging 54 +/- 5.1 nmol/L at 40 min and 92 +/- 5.1 nmol/L at 2 h. Cortisol concentrations were also significantly elevated in the Band (83 3.0 nmol/L) compared with Surgical mature bulls (57 +/- 3.0 nmol/L) at weeks 2-4 post-castration. The timing of this elevation coincided with significantly elevated haptoglobin concentrations (mg/mL) in the Band bulls (2.97 +/- 0.102 for mature bulls and 1.71 +/- 0.025 for weaners, vs. 2.10 +/- 0.102 and 1.45 +/- 0.025 respectively for the Surgical treatment) and evidence of slow wound healing and sepsis in both the weaner (0.81 +/- 0.089 not healed at week 4 for Band, 0.13 +/- 0.078 for Surgical) and mature bulls (0.81 +/- 0.090 at week 4 for Band, 0.38 +/- 0.104 for Surgical). Overall, liveweight gains of both age groups were not affected by castration method. The findings of acute pain, chronic inflammation and possibly chronic pain in the mature bulls at least, together with poor wound healing in the Band bulls support behavioural findings reported in the accompanying paper and demonstrate that tension banding produces inferior welfare outcomes for weaner and mature bulls compared with surgical castration. Crown Copyright (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) has been used to quantify the expressive behaviour of animals, and operant tests have been used to quantify measures of behavioural need. In this study we compared measures of behavioural expression and behaviour in operant tests. We examined the behavioural expression of pregnant ewes of body condition score (BCS) 2 and 3. The ewes were exposed to a feed motivation test in which they received a food reward. Pregnant ewes (48–70 days gestation) were assessed during a food motivation test after they had been maintained at BCS 3 (n = 7) or given a decreasing plane of nutrition that resulted in slow loss of 1 BCS unit (over 10–12 weeks; n = 7) or a fast loss of 1 BCS unit (over 4–6 weeks; n = 7). The feed motivation test involved ewes having the opportunity to approach a food reward and then being moved a given distance away from the reward by an automatic gate; they could then subsequently return to the feeder. Continuous video footage of each ewe during one cycle of the gate (approaching and returning from the food reward) was shown in random order to 11 observers who used their own descriptive terms (free-choice profiling methodology; FCP) to score the animals using QBA. Data of the assessment were analysed with generalised Procrustes analysis (GPA), a multivariate statistical technique associated with FCP. The research group also quantified the feeding behaviour of sheep in the same clips. These behaviours included how sheep approached the feeder, behaviours exhibited at the feeder, and how sheep returned from the feeder. There was consensus amongst observers in terms of their assessment of behavioural expression of the sheep (P < 0.001). The GPA found three main dimensions of assessed behavioural expression in the sheep, which together explained 44% of the variation observed. GPA dimension 1 differed between the three treatment groups (P < 0.05): ewes maintained at BCS 3 scored low on GPA dimension 1 (i.e. were described as more calm/bored/comfortable) compared with ewes that had a slow declining BCS (described as more interested/anxious/excited). GPA dimension 2 scores were not significantly different between treatment groups. However, quantitative behaviours exhibited by sheep during the clips were correlated with qualitative behavioural assessments made by the observers. Animals that spent more time ‘sniffing and looking for more feed’ were attributed lower GPA 2 scores (described as more hungry/searching/excited) (P < 0.05), and animals that ‘did not walk directly to the food reward (but stopped along the way)’ were attributed significantly higher GPA 2 scores (more curious/intimidated/uneasy) (P < 0.01). GPA dimension 3 scores also did not differ between the treatment groups; however, sheep that had a higher number of feeding events during the entire 23-h feed motivation test were attributed lower GPA dimension 3 scores (they were described as more hungry/bold/interested) (P < 0.05), and sheep that consumed a larger amount of the feed reward were attributed higher GPA dimension 3 scores (more curious/concerned/reserved) (P < 0.05). We conclude that QBA is a valuable method of assessing sheep behavioural expression under the conditions tested, in that it provided an integrative characterisation of sheep behavioural expression that was in agreement with quantitative behavioural measures of feeding.

Although there has been a decline in sheep numbers in Australia and New Zealand, both countries remain significant producers and exporters of sheep meat. The ongoing demand for more sustainable and ethical animal farming systems and practices requires sheep production industries to be both vigilant and responsive to consumer and the broader societal needs. Demonstration of continuous improvement in animal welfare is paramount and the welfare risks and challenges confronting Australasian sheep industries now and into the future are discussed.

In animal production there are two core dimensions to environmental fit, one that centres on the capacity of the environment to meet an animal's needs and the other concerns the capacity of the animal to match or 'fit' the environment. Efforts to increase capacity in both of these dimensions can contribute substantially to the continuous improvement of animal welfare within different livestock production systems. Achieving this will require an integrated approach that combines genetic, environmental and management strategies.

Food restriction is considered to be a welfare issue in extensively reared animals. However, the effects of food restriction on the affective state, and its physiological regulation, are unknown. In Experiment 1, we aimed to assess the effects of increased plasma concentrations of acyl-ghrelin on judgement bias (an indicator of affective states) by fasting sheep for 24h or by ghrelin administration. In Experiment 2, we aimed to assess the effects of chronic food restriction on judgement bias and attention bias towards a food-related cue. For the judgement bias test, sheep were trained in an arena to approach a positive location cue associated with conspecifics and not approach a negative location cue associated with a dog. Three non-trained, non-reinforced ambiguous location cues were situated between the positive and negative locations. Attention bias towards a food-related cue was assessed by placing an empty food bucket against the wall of the arena halfway between the entry point and the positive location. In Experiment 1, sheep were divided into three treatments; 24h fast, ghrelin administration or control. Judgement bias, locomotor activity and plasma cortisol concentrations were assessed. The ghrelin treated group tended to express a more pessimistic bias compared to the control group (P<0.1), and plasma cortisol concentrations tended to be increased (P<0.1). In Experiment 2, sheep were subjected to a high feeding level (HF) or low feeding level (LF) for 7days. The LF group tended to show a more optimistic judgement bias (P<0.1). When the food-related cue was presented, LF ewes took longer to reach the positive location (P<0.001), spent longer with their head inside the bucket (P<0.001) and more time interacting with the bucket (P<0.01). This study provides preliminary evidence that food restriction alters judgement bias and attention bias towards a food-related cue which may indicate altered affective states of sheep.

As a tissue, muscle has the unique ability to switch its metabolic source of ATP, the energy currency underpinning muscle function. During oxygen debt, such as that occurring immediately following the death of animals, anaerobic metabolism is initiated in an attempt to restore homeostasis within the muscle. The cascade of biochemical events that are initiated is paramount in the context of meat quality. This review revisits this reasonably well-known subject but takes a new perspective by drawing on the understanding outside the traditional discipline of meat science. Our understanding of the intrinsic regulators of glycolytic flux has improved but knowledge gaps remain. Further efforts to understand how the glycolytic enzyme kinetics are influenced by both pre- and post-slaughter factors will be beneficial in the ongoing quest to maximise fresh meat quality.

Pre-slaughter stress may decrease muscle glycogen content, a key element for a suitable low ultimate pH and prevention of dark-cutting meat. Body temperature monitoring is a tool used in research on animal stress, as an indicator of stress events. Possible relationships between body temperature of sheep and post-mortem muscle glycogen were investigated in this study. Body temperature was measured with intravaginal loggers inserted into each animal at 3 days pre-slaughter, to record body temperature every 3 min over a period of 3 days. Blood samples were collected from each animal at exsanguination for measurement of glucose and lactic acid concentrations. The muscle content of glycogen and lactic acid were determined in samples of M. longissimus collected at the level of the 13th rib, at 1 h post-slaughter. A plot of body temperature versus time showed a rise in body temperature from all animals during events such as mustering, loading onto the truck, unloading at the abattoir, during pre-slaughter handling and at slaughter. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were determined between (1) the main temperature increments occurring between farm and slaughter; and (2) post-slaughter muscle glycogen and lactate levels. A significant negative correlation was detected between elevation in core body temperature due to physical stress of sheep and muscle glycogen levels at slaughter. A low correlation was detected between body temperature and blood glucose or lactate concentrations. Further research should examine the relationship between core body temperature and meat quality in order to better understand the complex relationship between animal stress and meat quality.

This study investigated the involvement of the opioid system in modulating the affective state after the consumption of palatable and unpalatable rewards, using judgement bias as an indicator of the affective state. We hypothesised that consuming a palatable food reward would generate a more optimistic bias compared to receiving unpalatable wood chips. We hypothesised that morphine administration would further enhance the optimistic judgement bias after consumption of a food reward while reducing a pessimistic bias after receiving wood chips. Naloxone administration was expected to prevent the formation of an optimistic bias after consumption of a food reward, and was expected to have little effect after receiving the wood chips. The judgement bias arena consisted of a positive and a negative location cue, associated with conspecifics and a dog, respectively, as well as three non-reinforced ambiguous location cues between the positive and negative locations. Thirty sheep were successfully trained to approach the conspecifics and avoid the dog. Following training, sheep were randomly assigned to one of three treatments; morphine (1 mg/kg), naloxone (2 mg/kg) and control. Within each treatment, half the ewes received a small food reward and the other half wood chips before exposure to each of the five locations. Judgement bias was assessed by recording the latency to approach the five locations. Animals receiving the food reward approached the locations faster than animals receiving the wood chips (0.83 ± 0.04 and 1.00 ± 0.04 log-transformed latencies (s), respectively, P < 0.01). The latency was also near-significantly affected by a treatment × reward type interaction (P = 0.05), mostly due to the morphine treated ewes approaching the locations faster after receiving the food reward (log-transformed latencies (s): 0.82 ± 0.07 for control sheep after consuming food, 0.71 ± 0.07 for morphine treated sheep after food, 0.96 ± 0.07 for naloxone treated sheep after food, 0.94 ± 0.07 for control sheep after wood chips, 1.07 ± 0.07 for morphine sheep after wood chips and 1.00 ± 0.07 for naloxone sheep after wood chips). These results show that consumption of a food reward induced an optimistic judgement bias and suggest that morphine administration further enhanced this optimistic judgement bias. However, animal numbers and statistical power were low in this experiment and further research is necessary to confirm whether the opioid system is involved in the formation of judgement biases.

Schemes for the assessment of farm animal welfare and assurance of welfare standards have proliferated in recent years. An acknowledged short-coming has been the lack of impact of these schemes on the welfare standards achieved on farm due in part to sociological factors concerning their implementation. Here we propose the concept of welfare performance based on a broad set of performance attributes of an enterprise and describe a tool based on risk assessment and benchmarking methods for measuring and managing welfare performance. The tool termed the Unified Field Index is presented in a general form comprising three modules addressing animal, resource, and management factors. Domains within these modules accommodate the principle conceptual perspectives for welfare assessment: biological functioning; emotional states; and naturalness. Pan-enterprise analysis in any livestock sector could be used to benchmark welfare performance of individual enterprises and also provide statistics of welfare performance for the livestock sector. An advantage of this concept of welfare performance is its use of continuous scales of measurement rather than traditional pass/fail measures. Through the feedback provided via benchmarking, the tool should help farmers better engage in on-going improvement of farm practices that affect animal welfare.