The experiment AMS on the International Space-Station has produced accurate cosmic ray spectra for many chemical elements, both primaries like He, C, O, Fe, other cosmic ray (CR) primaries like Ne, Mg, and Si, secondaries like Li, Be, B, and of mixed provenance, like N, Na, and Al. The AMS spectra demonstrate that interaction is seriously diminishing fluxes up to a rigidity of about 100 GV, and so the existing models for CR interaction have to be re-examined. Based on earlier well-established ideas a model is proposed here that focusses on the cosmic ray interaction first in the wind shock shell of super giant stars, when the supernova driven shock races through, and second in the OB-Superbubble surrounding the SN: These stars include both red super-giant stars and blue super-giant stars; both produce black holes in their explosion, and drive winds and jets with electric currents. Variability of these winds or jets gives rise to temporary electric fields, as has recently been demonstrated, and discharge (so lightning) acceleration gives steep spectra, with synchrotron losses to p−5 in momentum p; these spectra are typically observed in both Galactic and some extragalactic radio filaments. Analogous hadron spectra p−4 excite a flat spectrum of magnetic irregularities in the bubble zone, which in turn yields a steep dependence of residence time versus energy, with power −5/3. This spectrum is indicated by the AMS data and appears to be required to explain the CR spectra below 100 GV. The emphasis in this paper is to work out the interaction of the freshly accelerated cosmic ray particles. In the model presented here the interaction is derived as a function of time, and then integrated, or developed to long times. The model gives a rigidity dependence of the secondary/primary ratio of slope −1/3 as well as the strong reduction of the primary fluxes below a rigidity of about 100 GV, relative to a power-law injection spectrum, with slope +2. The two key aspects based on blue super-giant stars and a magnetic irregularity spectrum in the bubble zone given by lightning are (i) a much larger column of interaction, allowed because of heavy element enrichment of the interaction zone, and (ii) even He, C, and O may have a small secondary contribution, as the difference to the Fe spectrum suggests; this small secondary component is visible in the 3He/4He ratio. The model may also explain the spectrum of CR anti-protons, the gamma-ray spectra of the Galaxy and the high energy neutrino spectrum of our Galaxy, including also red super-giant stars as sources. ISM-SNe, i.e. SN Ia and neutron-star SNe, contribute to CR protons and CR He nuclei.

Supermassive black hole (BH) mergers with spin-flips accelerate energetic particles through their relativistic precessing jets, producing high-energy neutrinos and finally gravitational waves (GWs). In star formation, massive stars form in pairs, triplets, and quadruplets, allowing second-generation mergers of the remnants with discrepant spin directions. The GW data support such a scenario. Earlier, we suggested that stellar mass BH mergers (visible in M82) with an associated spin-flip analogously allow the acceleration of energetic particles, with ensuing high-energy neutrinos and high-energy photons, and finally produce GWs. At cosmic distances, only the GWs and the neutrinos remain detectable. In this study, we generalize the argument to starburst and normal galaxies throughout their cosmic evolution and show that these galaxies may dominate over active galactic nuclei (AGN) in the flux of ultra-high-energy particles observed at Earth. All these sources contribute to the cosmic neutrino background, as well as the GW background (they detected lower frequencies). We outline a search strategy to find such episodic sources, which requires including both luminosity and flux density.

In Radio Super Novae (RSNe) a magnetic field of (B × r) = 1016.0±0.12 Gauss × cm is observed; these are the same numbers for Blue Super Giant (BSG) star explosions as for Red Super Giant (RSG) star explosions, despite their very different wind properties. The EHT data for M87 as well for low power radio galaxies all show consistency with just this value of the quantity (B × r), key for angular momentum and energy transport, and can be derived from the radio jet data. We interpret this as a property of the near surroundings of a black hole (BH) at near maximal rotation, independent of BH mass. In the commonly used green onion model, in which a 2 π flow changes over to a jet flow we interpret this as a wind emanating from the BH/accretion disk system and its surroundings. Near the BH collisions in the wind can produce a large fraction of anti-protons. In this scenario the cosmic Ray (CR) population from the wind/jet is proposed to be visible as EeV protons and anti-protons in the CR data to EeV energy, with a E−7/3 spectrum. This can be connected to a concept of inner and outer Penrose zones in the ergo-region. The observed numbers for the magnetic field imply the Planck time as the governing time scale: A BH rotating near maximum can accept a proton per log bin of energy in an extended spectrum with the associated pions every Planck time.

The Baksan Experiment on Sterile Transitions (BEST) probes the gallium anomaly and its possible connections to oscillations between active and sterile neutrinos. Based on the Gallium-Germanium Neutrino Telescope (GGNT) technology of the SAGE experiment, BEST employs two zones of liquid Ga target to explore neutrino oscillations on the meter scale. Oscillations on this short scale could produce deficits in the $^{71}$Ge production rates within the two zones, as well as a possible rate difference between the zones. From July 5th to October 13th 2019, the two-zone target was exposed to a primarily monoenergetic, 3.4-MCi $^{51}$Cr neutrino source 10 times for a total of 20 independent $^{71}$Ge extractions from the two Ga targets. The $^{71}$Ge production rates from the neutrino source were measured from July 2019 to March 2020. At the end of these measurements, the counters were filled with $^{71}$Ge doped gas and calibrated during November 2020. In this paper, results from the BEST sterile neutrino oscillation experiment are presented in details. The ratio of the measured $^{71}$Ge production rates to the predicted rates for the inner and the outer target volumes are calculated from the known neutrino capture cross section. Comparable deficits in the measured ratios relative to predicted values are found for both zones, with the $4 \sigma$ deviations from unity consistent with the previously reported gallium anomaly. If interpreted in the context of neutrino oscillations, the deficits give best fit oscillation parameters of $\Delta m^2=3.3^{+\infty}_{-2.3}$ eV$^2$ and sin$^2 2\theta=0.42^{+0.15}_{-0.17}$, consistent with $\nu_e \rightarrow \nu_s$ oscillations governed by a surprisingly large mixing angle.