In recent years, the concept of One Health (OH) has arisen as an approach that helps to catalyze the creation of transdisciplinary teams needed for surveillance and investigation of emerging disease dynamics. Besides a wealth of descriptions of what the OH approach encompasses, a dearth of information is available regarding the training of individuals in OH competencies. In 2019, the Nigerian Center for Disease Control developed an OH strategic plan to meet the country’s human, animal, and environmental health challenges. In response to the demand for clinicians, scientists, climatologists, conservationists, and environmentalists, who have expertise in environment, human, plant, and animal health to work collaboratively in addressing OH challenges in Nigeria. An interprofessional group of faculty from the University of Texas Medical Branch, the University of Jos, and the National Veterinary Research Institute convened to develop a novel OH course ‘entitled ‘One Health for Translational Team Science. The objective of the course was to explore the evolution of an emerging epidemic, capitalizing on various learning environments, including animal, environmental, human, and public health perspectives. The 6-week course comprised of three parts: 2-weeks virtual part of case-based group discussions focusing on animal and environmental aspects, 2 weeks of individual field experiences, and a final virtual part focusing on human health. Pedagogical tools used were: case-based group discussions, breakout group presentations, role-play activities, field project write-up, peer evaluation, group writing assignments, and weekly reflections with the goal of working in teams to develop and practice the fundamental leadership and management skills in addressing emerging public health challenges. Post-course evaluations showed that all participants felt more confident identifying and practicing the necessary attitudes and skills to participate effectively in the evaluation of an outbreak. Furthermore, the roles, responsibilities, and “One Health ways of thinking” for the various disciplines and professions involved in improving global health were articulated and identified.

Anopheles mosquitoes are major vectors of malaria and play a major role in transmission of infections in humans. Older populations of Anopheles mosquito are more likely to transmit malaria since they need to survive the time needed for the parasite to develop inside the mosquito and to take at least two blood meals to transmit the disease, therefore will have higher parity rates. Hence, the study on parity rate of gambiae in Buruku and Katsina-Ala Local Government Areas of Benue State was carried out to determine their physiological age and longevity. Anopheles mosquitoes were collected using CDC light traps, the traps were placed one indoor and another outdoor in randomly selected houses for two consecutive nights, from June 2018 to May 2019. A total of 529 Anopheles gambiae were dissected to determine their physiological age and longevity of which 280 (52.93%) were parous while nulliparous ones were 249 (47.07%). However, there was no 2 significant difference (χ = 0.3434, df = 1, P = 0.5579) in relation to the proportion of parous and nulliparous mosquitoes. Katsina-Ala area had a higher number of parous mosquitoes 110 (57.29%) than Buruku area 170 (50.45%). Nevertheless, 2 parity rate across the two Local Government Areas showed no significant difference (χ = 2.0347, df = 1, P = 0.1537). The results show that the nulliparous mosquitoes survive long enough to take at least one blood meal. Overall results showed that parity rate in both dry and rainy season remained the same, indicating that malaria transmission across both seasons in the study area is also the same and the chance for a person to be infected is equal and perennial. Control measures should therefore centre on education to improve the proper use of Long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) and other protective measures to reduce human mosquito contact.

Vector control remains the preferred method for effective malaria control. The impressive results of vector control are however, threatened by emerging resistance to insecticides among Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes. This study aimed at determining the pattern of resistance to selected insecticides in each class of carbamates, organochlorines, organophosphates, and pyrethriods using World Health Organisation tubes and Centre for Disease prevention and Control standard bottle assay protocols. Larvae and pupae of Anopheles mosquitoes were collected in villages of Buruku and o Katsina-Ala Local Government Areas of Benue State between April and May 2019 and reared at 27 C and 80% relative humidity to adults at the Nasarawa state University Insectary. Susceptibility tests were carried out on 2-3 days old non- blood fed female adults. With WHO test method, Anopheles mosquitoes were completely susceptible (100% mortality) to Primiphos-methyl (organophosphate), Lambdacyhalothrin (pyrethroids) in Buruku and Katsina Ala but were resistant (54% mortality) to DDT (Organochlorine) in both sites. Mosquitoes were resistant (88% mortality) to Bendiocarb (Carbamates) in Katsina Ala but susceptible in Buruku with 99% mortality. However, the results for CDC bottle bioassays showed that Anopheles mosquitoes were susceptible to Primiphos methyl, Lambdacyhalothrin and Bendiocarb (>98% mortality) except for DDT which was resistant (<85% mortality) in both LGAs. Overall, this study shows that Anopheles gambiae s.l are resistant to DDT. The resistance may have arisen from indiscriminate use of the pesticide in households and for agricultural purposes. This study provides baseline and useful information on the susceptibility status of Anopheles mosquito populations to four classes of insecticides approved for public health use. Proper regulation should therefore be put in place on the procurement and use of this insecticide.

Nigeria bears the heaviest malaria burden of any single nation in the world and has relentlessly pursued the elimination of the disease. One of the key strategies for the elimination of malaria is increasing the specificity and sensitivity of surveillance. To this end, this study sought to determine malaria transmission along an altitudinal gradient of Plateau state, central Nigeria, while examining socio- demographic factors affecting the prevalence of malaria at these sites. Three communities each at high and low elevation areas of Plateau State in central Nigeria were surveyed for incidence of malaria cases. Information on age, gender, use of long-lasting insecticide treated nets, pregnancy status in women, and, malaria severity were recorded in 1700 study subjects. Using venipuncture method, 4ml blood samples were collected in EDTA vials for laboratory analyses. Microscopy (thick and thin blood smear techniques) and Rapid Diagnostic test were used to detect malaria parasites and determine the Plasmodium species involved. Using a propriety application (ELDACAP), real time geolocation data, socioeconomic, health, and preventative status information were also collected from all 1700 respondents. Our findings showed more cases of malaria prevalence in lowland areas compared to highland areas. The main predictors of malaria incidence were age, sex, use of ITN and the presentation of symptoms. Non-net users had more prevalence of malaria compared to users, males had a higher positive frequency compared to females, and malaria was more prevalent in the younger age group compared to older group. Malaria eradication in north-central Nigeria must take into account geographic differences, cultural and social practices, previous anti-malaria preventative measures (use of ITN), as well as the presence of asymptomatic malaria carriers who serve as reservoir in the population

In this article, we aimed to investigate the anti-aging activity of Lantana camara ethanolic leaves-extract in Drosophila melanogaster: survival and longevity (life span). L. camara leaves were collected and washed thoroughly of sand particles, air-dried, ground, and extracted by the maceration method using ethanol as a solvent. Phytochemical screening was carried out. 168-hour LC50 was determined by exposing fruit flies to concentrations ranging from 5 to 5000 mg/10 g diet for 7-days. Twenty-eight-day survival and longevity studies were carried out by administering L. camara ethanolic leaves extract at 5, 10, and 20 mg/10 g diet to 1-3 days old fruit flies. Each concentration was replicated four times with 50 fruit flies each. The emergence rate of young fruit flies from eggs laid by fruit flies administered L. camara leaves-extracts were also carried out. The total yield of the extraction was determined to be 18%. Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of alkaloids, Flavonoids, Phenol, steroids, cardiac glycosides, and carbohydrates. 168-hour LC50 of L. camara was also determined to be 1135 mg/10 g diet. L. camara significantly prolonged (P < 0.05) survival rate and extended (P < 0.05) D. melanogaster life span compared with control. L. camara significantly increased (P < 0.05) emergence rate of young fruit flies from eggs laid by fruit flies administered L. camara ethanolic leaves extracts. From the experimental results, it can be concluded that the ethanol extract of L. camara leaves extended the life span of D. melanogaster at these concentrations. Due to similarities of conserved genes between humans and fruit flies, the use of L. camara ethanolic leaves extract at these concentrations is safe and may be recommended as herbal medicine in humans.

Mosquitoes are the most important group of insects in terms of public health importance, which transmit serious human diseases. The continuous application of synthetic insecticides to control these mosquitoes causes development of resistance in vector species, and an adverse effect on environmental quality and non-target organisms including human health. Therefore, the use of active toxic agents from plant extracts as alternative mosquito control strategy cannot be over emphasized, as these are non-toxic, easily available at affordable prices, biodegradable and show target - specific activities against different species of vector mosquitoes. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the larvicidal efficacy of the aqueous and methanol leaf extracts of H. suaveolens against the fourth instars larvae of Anopheles species. Standard WHO protocols was adopted for the larvicidal bioassay. Larvicidal activity was evaluated at concentrations of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000 mg/L. The larval mortality was observed after 24 and 48hours bioassay. The results are mean of three replicates and the mortalities recorded were subjected to chi-square test and probit analysis to determine median lethal concentrations (LC50). TheGC-MS analysis ofthe methanolic leaf extract of the plantrevealed the presence of twelve compounds on the chromatogram. Among the major compounds areOleic Acid (33.33%), Octadecanoic acid (13.52%), 1,3-Cyclohexadiene-1-methanol,alpha.,2,6,6-(10.42%), 1,3-Cyclopentanediol, trans (9.60%), n-Hexadecanoic acid (9.01%) and 4-Hepten-3-one, 4-methyl (7.0%).The phytochemical screening of the aqueous and methanol leaf extracts of the plant revealed the presence of Tannins, Terpenoids, Flavonoids, Steroids, Carbohydrates, Cardiac glycoside and resins. The LC50 values estimated were 316.22mg/Lfor methanol extract and 323.59 mg/L for aqueous extract. The differences between the two extracts were however not significantly different at P>0.05. The findings also revealed that mortality was concentration dependent and both extracts showed promising larvicidal activity against Anopheles species larvae. Therefore, the crude leaf extract of the plant is recommended to be used as alternative to synthetic larvicides and further research is needed to test the activity of the plant on non-target organisms.

The knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) people hold towards a new disease could play a major role in the way they accept measures put in place to curb its spread as Symptoms of COVID-19 are similar to those of other endemic diseases, especially malaria. A cross-sectional KAP/symptomatology online survey was conducted from August –September 2020 across the six geopolitical regions of Nigeria. Data were entered into Google sheets and analyses performed using SPSS version 20. From the 900 respondents, majority 66% were from the North west while 1.2% were from the North east. By sex and age distribution, 69% were males while females were 31%. Age group 15-25 years were more (32.22%) and the least (11%) among respondents were above 65years. Majority of respondents (57.89%), had not experienced symptoms associated with COVID-19 in the past 3 months before this study, however 96.0% of respondents have heard about COVID19 prior the time of survey. Hyperthemia (high fever) 636(70.67%) was accurately recognized by respondents as the most common symptoms. Other highly mentioned symptoms were dry or chesty cough, shortness of breath, catarrh and cough, difficulty in breathing at night, painful breathing, and weakness or tiredness, with significant differences in the responses recorded for the recognition of COVID-19 symptoms across the geopolitical zones (p=0.00). In terms of preventive measures, 771(85.67%) respondents perceive regular hand washing with soap as the major preventive measure for COVID19 infection. This was followed by the usage of face mask 659(73.22%). Also, 794(88.22%) respondents accurately recognized hyperthemia as the most common overlapping symptom between malaria and COVID-19. Other highly mentioned overlapping symptoms were weakness or tiredness 591(65.67%), loss of appetite 504 (56.00%), loss of taste and smell 388(43.11%), and catarrh and cough 313(34.78%). We conclude that awareness of COVID-19 symptoms is fairly high in the country. Awareness strategies should target those with limited access to information on the disease. Keywords: COVID-19, Knowledge, Symptoms, Preventive measures

Background. - Mangifera indica has been used for treating health complications with little data on its toxicological impact on survival, geotaxis, reproduction, and the antioxidant system. Methods. - Total phenol and flavonoid contents were estimated. The ingestion method of exposure (extract was mixed in flies' food) was used. Each concentration was administered per 10 g fruit flies diet. 7-day LC50 was determined by exposing 50 flies for 7 days to Mangifera indica concentration ranging from 100 mg extract/10 g diet to 2000 mg extract/10 g diet. 28 days survival assay was performed by exposing 50 fruit flies each to 25 mg extract/10 g diet, mg extract/10 diet g, and 100 mg extract/10 g diet for 28 days. A 6-day short term exposure was also conducted to assess Mangifera indica toxic effect on climbing activity, survival, reproduction, and antioxidant system in Drosophila melanogaster. Results. - Total phenol and flavonoid content were 0.226 +/- 0.02 and 0.027 +/- 0.05 mg/g dry weight of the extract, respectively. There was a significant mortality rate (P < 0.05), and the 7-day LC50 was 353 mg extract/10 g diet. At 25 mg extract/10 g diet 50 mg extract/10 g diet and 100 mg extract/10 g diet, the survival-rate of fruit flies significantly dropped (P < 0.05) with arise in Mangifera indica concentration. Short-term exposure also showed a significant reduction (P < 0.05) in GST-activity, survival-rate, and emergence of young fruit flies with an increase in concentration. Total thiol, locomotor, AChE, and CAT activities decreased non-significantly (P > 0.05). Conclusion. - The significant adverse effect of Mangifera indica extract as seen in the decrease in survival rate, the emergence of young flies, climbing, and antioxidant activities of fruit flies suggests its cautious application and use in herbal medicine. (C) 2021 Academie Nationale de Pharmacie. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

The health and well-being of individuals in a nation absolutely depends on the quality of water available for consumption. Therefore, this study evaluated parasitic contaminants of drinking water sources in Doma Local Government Area of Nasarawa State, Nigeria. A total of 48 water samples were collected from different sources (boreholes, wells and streams) from March to July 2017. The water samples were analyzed using the Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) floatation method and the samples were examined microscopically for the presences of parasites. A total of 32 (66.67%) water samples were parasitized by a trematode (Fasciola hepatica), two protozoans (Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia lamblia) and three nematodes (Trichuris trichiuria, Ascaris lumbricoides and Hookworm). The nematode group had the highest contamination rate 19 (59.38%) followed by the protozoan group 12 (37.50%) while trematode was the least with 1(3.13%). The stream source was the most contaminated in late dry and early wet seasons having 69.23% and 94.74% respectively, followed by wells which had 30.77% and 5.26% in late dry and early wet seasons respectively while boreholes had 0% contamination in both seasons. Therefore, prevalence of parasites in relation to sources of water showed a very high significant association (X2= 49.741, df = 2, P < 0.0001), while there was no significant association with seasons (X2 = 2.3438, df = 1, P = 0.1258).Result indicated high rate of parasitic contamination of drinking water sources in the study area. Hence, the need for advocacy and enlightenment of the inhabitants of the area on the importance of proper treatment of potable water.Key words: Parasites, potable water sources, seasons

A study co-infection of malaria and typhoid fever among pregnant women attending antenatal clinics at General Hospital Wuse, Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja, Nigeria, between March and May, 2015. Blood samples were obtained from the pregnant women by venipuncture technique and 4ml of whole blood collected and placed into EDTA bottle for malaria parasite and typhoid fever examination. A total of 200 pregnant women were examined. Field stained thick and thin blood films were used to detect malaria parasites in the samples while typhoid fever was diagnosed from each blood sample using Widal test kit. Out of the 200 persons sampled, 16(8.0%) tested positive for malaria, 86(43.0%) tested positive for typhoid fever. Co-infection of malaria and typhoid fever was highest in the age-group of 31-40 years, 8(11.11%) while͵≤ 20, 21-30 and 51-60 age-groups recorded no co-infection. Statistically, there is a significant difference on malaria-typhoid co-infection. There is need for massive health education campaign to educate the pregnant women who visit General Hospital, Wuse, to correct the wrong perception they have about malaria and typhoid fever for effective treatment and control of the diseases.Keywords: Malaria; typhoid fever; co-infection; Wuse.

Fish parasites are of particular interest in relation not only to fish health but also in the understanding of ecological problems. A study of the gastrointestinal parasites of fish as bio-indicators of heavy metal pollution in Chanchaga River was carried out from May-August, 2014. A total of 100 specimens were sampled which comprises of 4 species; Tilapia zilli , Auchenoglanis occidentalis , Clarias gariepinus and Mormyrus rume (25 samples each). The intestinal contents of the samples were analyzed, parasites found were the Nematodes, 52.00% and mean intensity of 57.03, Cestodes, 28.00%with 4.14 mean intensity and some unidentified species of insects and Copepods were 12.00% and a mean intensity of 7.85. The concentration of the metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Cru0026Mn) were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). Result showed no significant (Pu003e0.05) difference in the heavy metal accumulation in the muscle of both the infected fishes and the uninfected ones, but there was a significant (Pu003c0.05) difference in the metal concentration in the intestines amongst the fish species for Cu in T. zilli  (0.83±0.01mg/g) and in A. occidentalis(0.02±0.01 mg/g). Among the species sampled for heavy metal in fish muscle M. rume had the lowest mean concentration (0.27±0.01 mg/g) while C. gariepinus  had the highest (0.45±0.03 mg/g). This study has established the presence of gastrointestinal parasites in fish from Chanchaga River and also presence of heavy metal though in low quantity in the fish from the River thereby indicating that the river is slightly polluted. Keywords: Fish parasites, Heavy metals, Gastrointestinal and Chanchaga River

Gastrointestinal parasites usually inhabit the intestines of man and various animals. Consequently a total of 300 faecal, 300 Hand wash and 18 Soil samples from school children were analyzed using formal concentration method, while 20 flies were analysed using Soul technique, all from three different schools; Tudun Fulani Model, Chanchaga Model and Shango Primary Schools. A prevalence of 175 (58.33%) was recorded from the Stool sample analyzed, in which four (4) parasites were isolated: Ascaris lumbricoides 91 (30.33%), Schistosoma mansoni 19 (6.33%), Entamoeba histolytica 11 (3.67%) and Hookworms 54 (18%). There was a significant (P 0.05) difference. A prevalence of 51 (17%) was recorded from the hand analysis, in which three (3) parasites were isolated: Ascaris lumbricoides 31 (10.33%), Entamoeba histolytica 5(1.67%) and Hookworm 14 (4.67%). There was no significant (P>0.05) difference in the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite encountered from hand-wash analysis with respect to location. Hand-wash analysis with respect to age group and gender also showed no significant (P>0.05) difference. A prevalence of 10 (55.56%) was detected from the soil sample analysis where 2 parasites were isolated; A. lumbricoides 6 (33.33%) and Hookworms 4 (22.227%). There was also no significant (P<0.05) difference in the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasite encountered from soil analysis. This study has shown that various sources are responsible for the transmission of gastrointestinal parasites; hence there is every need to maintain a high level of hygiene combined with mass public enlightenment to check the spread of this infection in Minna. Keywords: Gastrointestinal, Hookworm, Epidemiology, Entamoeba histolytica

Background The Global Programme to Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis (GPELF), launched in 2000, has the target of eliminating the disease as a public health problem by the year 2020. The strategy adopted is mass drug administration (MDA) to all eligible individuals in endemic communities and the implementation of measures to reduce the morbidity of those suffering from chronic disease. Success has been recorded in many rural endemic communities in which elimination efforts have centered. However, implementation has been challenging in several urban African cities. The large cities of West Africa, exemplified in Nigeria in Kano are challenging for LF elimination program because reaching 65% therapeutic coverage during MDA is difficult. There is therefore a need to define a strategy which could complement MDA. Thus, in Kano State, Nigeria, while LF MDA had reached 33 of the 44 Local Government Areas (LGAs) there remained eleven 'urban' LGAs which had not been covered by MDA. Given the challenges of achieving at least 65% coverage during MDA implementation over several years in order to achieve elimination, it may be challenging to eliminate LF in such settings. In order to plan the LF control activities, this study was undertaken to confirm the LF infection prevalence in the human and mosquito populations in three urban LGAs. Methods The prevalence of circulating filarial antigen (CFA) of Wuchereria bancrofti was assessed by an immuno-chromatography test (ICT) in 981 people in three urban LGAs of Kano state, Nigeria. Mosquitoes were collected over a period of 4 months from May to August 2015 using exit traps, gravid traps and pyrethrum knock-down spray sheet collections (PSC) in different households. A proportion of mosquitoes were analyzed for W. bancrofti, using dissection, loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay and conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results The results showed that none of the 981 subjects (constituted of <21% of children 5-10 years old) tested had detectable levels of CFA in their blood. Entomological results showed that An. gambiae s.l. had W. bancrofti DNA detectable in pools in Kano; W. bancrofti DNA was detected in between 0.96% and 6.78% and to a lesser extent in Culex mosquitoes where DNA was detected at rates of between 0.19% and 0.64%. DNA analysis showed that An. coluzzii constituted 9.9% of the collected mosquitoes and the remaining 90.1% of the mosquitoes were Culex mosquitoes. Conclusion Despite detection of W. bancrofti DNA within mosquito specimens collected in three Kano urban LGAs, we were not able to find a subject with detectable level of CFA. Together with other evidence suggesting that LF transmission in urban areas in West Africa may not be of significant importance, the Federal Ministry of Health advised that two rounds of MDA be undertaken in the urban areas of Kano. It is recommended that the prevalence ofW. bancrofti infection in the human and mosquito populations be re-assessed after a couple of years.

The prevalence of Schistosoma mansoni infection among pupils in primary school of Keffi Town, Keffi Local Government Area of Nasarawa State was carried out. Samples were examined for ova of schistosomes microscopically following concentration with formol-ether technique at the Parasitology Laboratory of the Federal College of Medical and Veterinary Laboratory, NVRI, Vom, Plateau State. A total number of 200 stool samples were collected from 100 males and 100 female pupils. The result of the microscopic examinations showed the prevalence of 3 (3.19%) for S. mansoni. In relation to age, schistosomiasis had a higher prevalence rate among children between the age-range 10-14 of 3 (100.00%) than the younger children. Further results in relation to sex revealed that only 3 (1.5%) males were positive for S. mansoni, while none of the females examined were positive. Other intestinal infections included helminthes such as Hyemenolepis nana (1.063%) and ovum of hookworm (6.382%). Protozoans observed include Entamoeba histolytical (44.680), Entamoeba coli (32.978), Girdian lambia (6.382) and Iodomoe babuschlii (5.319) which are all also harmful to the humans. The findings of this work may show that school-age children are the most affected group due to high exposure to vector-infested water bodies situated around the study site as growth retardation and poor school performance are the adverse effects of the disease besides clinical manifestation and its complications.Keywords: prevalence, Schistosoma mansoni, primary school children

Malaria and typhoid fever are both endemic in the tropics and pregnant women constitute one of the high risk groups. The objective is to determine the rate of malaria- typhoid co-infection in pregnant women attending antenatal clinics in Wuse general hospital Abuja, Nigeria.A study of malaria infection and typhoid fever on the pregnant women attending wuse general hospital and its haematological parameters was carried out between April and May, 2015 in Abuja. Blood samples were collected and examined for malaria and typhoid using widal agglutination method and P. falciparium antigens rapid test device respectively. Of the 200 sampled, 16(8%) were infected with malaria parasite while 77 (38.5%) were infected with typhoid, 9(4.5%) had the malaria typhoid co-infection. More co-infection 7(10.6%) was recorded among primigravidae than the multigravidae 2 (2.2%) these differences were statistically significant (P < 0.05, df =1, X 2 cal= 8.5462, X 2 tab= 3.841). Highest prevalence was recorded among those in their first trimester 6 (8.9%) and lowest among those in the third trimester 0 (0%), these differences were also statistically significant (P < 0.05, df =1, X 2 cal= 4.3292, X 2 tab= 5.991). The study showed that typhoidfever was complicated by malaria in pregnancy in at least 38.5% of the cases and this has a far reaching effect on adverse pregnancy outcome. This has immense public health implication.

A total of one hundred and sixty (160) vegetable samples where collected in Jos South Local Government, from two different markets (Building material and Vom market) between May to June 2013 for analysis. These vegetable samples include cabbage, carrot, garden egg, lettuce, and spinach. They were screened using normal saline sedimentation technique. Cysts, ova and larvae of intestinal protozoa, Cestodes and nematode were recovered. 88 (55.0%) of the sample were positive for different species of parasites. Strongyloides stercoralis 38.63% had the highest occurrence follow Entameoba coli, with 34 (38.63%), 29 (32.9%) were observed for Hookworm, Hymenolepis nana had the least with 5 (5.68%). Cabbage with 27.00% had the highest parasitic load, spinach was found to have the least multiple parasites contamination of sixteen (16%). The results from this work shows an indication that animal parasites can be acquired through the consumption of these vegetables, especially when not properly and hygienically prepared before taken to market.

Background Members of the Anopheles gambiae complex are important vectors of lymphatic filariasis (LF) in sub-Saharan Africa, but little is known about the relative contributions of all mosquitoes to lymphatic filariasis transmission in this area. Methods Over a 28 month period, mosquitoes were collected from 13 villages in Plateau and Nasarawa states in central Nigeria and dissected to determine W. bancrofti infection status. Wings and legs from a subset of the mosquitoes visually identified as A. gambiae s.l. were identified by PCR as either A. gambiae s.s. or A. arabiensis . Results A. gambiae s.s peaked in abundance during the rainy season while A. arabiensis predominated during drier parts of the year. Both species were found equally likely to be infected with the developing stages (L 1 -L 3 ) of W. bancrofti (9.2% and 11.1%, respectively). Fewer A. funestus (1.1%, p < 0.001) were infected than A. gambiae s.l. Conclusion Understanding the relative contributions of morphologically indistinguishable species to LF transmission is essential if PCR is to be performed on mosquito pools. In the study area, the use of mosquito pools composed of A. gambiae sibling species would not be problematic, as both A. gambiae s.s. and A. arabiensis contribute equally to LF transmission.