Undigested forage neutral detergent fiber (uNDF) from long-term ruminal in situ incubations are used to estimate indigestible neutral detergent fiber (iNDF). Measurement of iNDF is important in forage evaluation because it defines the potentially digestible pool of neutral detergent fiber (NDF). Near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) can be calibrated to in situ reference sets to rapidly predict uNDF. Our objective was to compare uNDF estimates after 240 h of incubation when two types of bags were used in the in situ reference method. The bags compared were 4 cm × 5 cm Ankom F57 bags (25 micron pore size), and 5 cm × 10 cm Ankom in situ bags (50 micron pore size). Alfalfa samples from Pennsylvania and Wisconsin (n = 144) of different varieties and harvest intervals were used. One-half or two gram samples, respectively, were weighed into the small and large bags in triplicate. Mass to surface area was 0.05 and 0.02 g/cm2 for the small and large bags, respectively. The iNDF content after 240 h incubation was evaluated by two types bags in three rumen-cannulated Holstein cows. Each dried and ground forage was also scanned to determine the visible–near-infrared-reflectance spectra with a FOSS 6500 spectrophotometer. Prediction equations were developed for each bag type using modified partial least square regressions. The estimated iNDF fraction from small and large bags were 13.75% and 9.97%, respectively (SED = 0.39, P < 0.001). The coefficient of determination for calibration (R2), cross-validation (1 - VR), calibration standard deviation (SEC), and interactive authentication standard deviation (SECV) was 0.94, 0.92, 0.85 and 0.98 for values determined with the small bag and 0.88, 0.85, 1.12 and 1.27 for iNDF for values determined with the large bag, respectively. Results indicate that iNDF varies among alfalfa cultivars and NIRS can be used to quickly and quantitatively estimate iNDF content in alfalfa. Bag type influences 240h NDF residues. NIRS predictions of iNDF from the small bag calibration set had higher R2 and lower SEC and SECV than the large bag calibrations.

This study was carried out to assess the effects of adding Lactobacillus plantarum, molasses or/and ethanol on the fermentation quality, in vitro digestibility and aerobic stability of total mixed ration (TMR) silage, which is well accepted in small-scale dairy farms in Tibet. Total mixed ration were ensiled in laboratory silos (1 L) and treated with (1) no additive (Control), (2) ethanol (E, 25 ml/kg fresh weight (FW)), (3) molasses (M, 30 g/kg FW); (4) Lactobacillus plantarum (L, 106cfu/g FW); (5) ethanol + molasses (EM); and (6) ethanol + Lactobacillus plantarum (EL). After 45 days of ensiling, six silos per treatment were opened for the fermentation quality and in vitro digestibility analyses, whereas 18 silos were used for the aerobic stability test for the following 9 days. All TMR silages were well preserved with dominant lactic acid (LA), low pH and ammonia nitrogen, and negligible propionic and butyric acid. The L and EL silages had the lowest pH and highest LA concentrations. The addition of ethanol did not inhibit silage fermentation as there were no significant differences for the pH, LA, acetic acid, negligible propionic acid or ammonia nitrogen content, lactic acid bacteria and yeast counts between Control and the E silage. During the aerobic stability test, pH increased by 1.39, 1.67, 1.69 and 0.74 for the Control, M, L and EM silages, but only 0.40 and 0.34 for E and EL silages, respectively. Upon exposure to air, the LA concentration in the L silage was evidently (P < 0.05) decreased, whereas LA concentration in the EL silage remained the highest value after the third day of aerobic exposure. Mean populations of aerobic bacteria and yeast in the E and EL silages were lower (P < 0.05) than those of the Control. These findings suggested that L. plantarum is effective in improving fermentation quality of TMR silages. Although the addition of ethanol in our study did not depress the fermentation of the TMR silages, it showed potential to inhibit the aerobic spoilage of TMR silages, either alone or in combination with the L. plantarum. It is concluded that L. plantarum combined with ethanol not only ensures better fermentation but also could improve aerobic stability.

Nb-based ‘312’ MAX phase has not been recognized so far, raising a hypothesis that Nb doping would destabilize the isostructural Ti3AlC2. Here we report that (Ti1−xNbx)3AlC2 could persist with a doping limitation up to x = 0.15. As demonstrated by HAADF-STEM analysis, Nb dopants homogeneously distribute among polycrystalline grains at the microscale and randomly occupy the Ti sites at the atomic level. Beyond the limitation, Nb-doped ‘312’ phase Ti3AlC2 decomposes into (Ti,Nb)C, Nb-doped ‘211’ phase Ti2AlC, and Nb-based ‘413’ phase. Compared to pristine Ti3AlC2, the compressive strength of (Ti0.9Nb0.1)3AlC2 at 1200 °C increases by 130%, whereas doping at this level impairs the oxidation resistance. Improving high-temperature strength without deteriorating oxidation resistance can be achieved by 5% Nb doping.

The effect of cow and in situ bag type on undigested NDF (uNDF) content of corn silage, wheat straw, and alfalfa silage after 240 h in situ incubation were evaluated in three rumen-cannulated Holstein cows. Two corn silages, a wheat straw, and an alfalfa silage sample were dried and ground to pass through a 2.5-mm screen. After thorough mixing, 1 , 2, and 5 g of each forage were placed into F57 Ankom bags (4 by 5 cm), Ankom 5- by 10-cm nylon bags (part number R0510), or Ankom 10- by 20-cm nylon bags (part number R1020), respectively. There were three duplicates for each treatment within each cow. Sample mass to surface area by bag was 25, 20, and 12.5 mg cm−2, respectively. The residual NDF was analyzed after 240 h incubation. Data was analyzed by SPSS 19.0. Within each forage, the effect of cow and bag type on uNDF within forages was determined by ANOVA. Means were compared by Duncan's multiple range test. The contents of the uNDF significantly differed due to bag type (P < 0.001). The content of uNDF in F57 bags was significantly higher than in R0510 and R1020 nylon bags (P < 0.05) and there was no significant difference in uNDF between R0510 and R1020 nylon bags (P > 0.05). The uNDF differed within cow for wheat straw (P < 0.001). Bag type and effective surface area should be taken into consideration when measuring uNDF by in situ methods; the estimate of uNDF in relatively indigestible materials, such as wheat straw, may also be affected by cow.

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) growers are faced with the recurring dilemma of having to balance yield and forage quality when harvesting their alfalfa crop. Yield increases while digestibility decreases as the plant matures, primarily because of increasing lignin content in the stems. A consortium of scientists at Forage Genetics International, The Samuel Robert Noble Foundation and U.S. Dairy Forage Research Center collaborated to alter the lignin content in alfalfa through genetic modification, resulting in the recent commercial release of the HarvXtra alfalfa brand. A different approach was taken by breeders at Alforex Seeds who used conventional breeding to select for reduced whole plant lignin content in alfalfa, resulting in the recent release of the HiGest brand of alfalfa. Reducing the lignin content in alfalfa should provide a longer time period when forage with high nutritive value can be harvested. Field trials were established in six states (KS, MI, OH, PA, CA, WI) in spring 2015 to evaluate yield and nutritive value over time of the transgenic HarvXtra-008 alfalfa compared with conventional varieties. Forage samples were collected over time during different growth cycles and analyzed for nutritive value. Forage yield and nutritive value were also evaluated under 28-day, 33-day, and 38-day cutting intervals. Across all six states in the seeding year, HarvXtra-008 forage had consistently lower neutral detergent fiber (-3 to -3.8 units of NDF), lower acid detergent lignin (-1 unit of ADL), and higher NDF digestibility (+4.5 to +5.5 units of NDFD) compared with conventional alfalfa. This represents about a 10-day advantage in nutritive value for HarvXtra-008. When cut on the 38day schedule, HarvXtra-008 yielded similarly or more and with higher nutritive value than the other varieties cut more frequently on 33-day or 28-day schedules. Hi-Gest 360 (included in CA and PA trials) was not significantly different in nutritive value than a conventional variety selected for high forage quality. Results with HarvXtra-008 are promising for alfalfa growers who want to maintain high forage nutritive value while increasing forage yields with less frequent harvests. More years of data will show how harvest interval affects nutritive value, yield, stand persistence, and profitability of alfalfa with the reduced lignin transgenic trait. ________________________ R. Mark Sulc (sulc.2@osu.edu) Professor and Extension Forage Specialist, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210. Angela Parker (parker. parker.773@buckeyemail.osu.edu), Graduate Research Assistant, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210. Kenneth Albrecht (kaalbrec@wisc.edu), Professor, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. Kim Cassida cassida@msu.edu), Forage Extension Specialist, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824. Marvin Hall (mhh2@psu.edu), Professor, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802. Doo-Hong Min (dmin@ksu.edu), Assistant Professor, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506. Steve Orloff (sborloff@ucanr.edu), UCCE Farm Advisor, Siskiyou County, Yreka, CA96097. Dan Undersander (djunders@wisc.edu), Professor and Forage Agronomist, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706. Xuan Xu (xuanxu@ksu.edu), Graduate Research Assistant, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506. In: Proceedings, 2016 California Alfalfa and Forage Symposium, Reno, NV, Nov 29‐Dec 1, 2016. UC Cooperative Extension, Plant Sciences Department, University of California, Davis, CA 95616. (See http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu for this and other alfalfa conference Proceedings.)

The effects of adding 100 g of either dried apple pomace (AP), unground grape pomace (GP) or ground grape pomace (GGP) per kg wilted alfalfa (wet basis) on silage characteristics, aerobic stability, proteolysis and lipid composition were studied. The three combinations as well alfalfa without addition were ensiled in 1.8 L- jars for 60 d, with 4 jars per treatment. Addition of AP and GGP decreased pH (P<0.05). Pomace-treated silages contained more lactic acid than the control silage. Pomace treatments decreased aerobic stability of the ensiled alfalfa. The nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) concentrations in the ensiled alfalfa were decreased by 54%, 67% and 69% after being ensiled with AP, GP and GGP, respectively. Total fatty acid concentrations in the control silage and AP silage were comparable, but in GP or GGP-treated silages it was more than double that of the control silage. Application of pomace markedly increased (P<0.05) the proportions of oleic acid and linoleic acid in the ensiled alfalfa due to high proportions of these fatty acids in both pomaces. Silages treated by GP or GGP had a much greater proportion of linoleic acid than the control or AP treated silages (P<0.05); this fatty acid accounted for half of the fatty acids in GP or GGP-treated silages. The proportion of alpha-linolenic acid was lower in GP or GGP silages than in control silage or AP silage (P<0.05). In conclusion, application of apple or grape pomace at ensiling of alfalfa could not only employ this industrial waste as feed, but also inhibit proteolysis and alter the fatty acid composition of ensiled alfalfa. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

ABSTRACTOrchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.) is a major component of many pastures in temperate North America. Early and profuse flowering in pastures is problematic, because livestock refuse to consume flowering stems, prompting many graziers to simply avoid using this species. The objective of this research was to determine the impact of reduced flowering on the quality of harvested forage under two harvest managements of orchardgrass. Six cultivars, three normal cultivars and three sparse‐flowering cultivars (mean panicle density of 141 vs. 61 panicles m⁻2, respectively), were evaluated in field experiments at 21 locations in North America under a 3‐cut harvest management. These cultivars were also evaluated at seven locations under a 5‐cut harvest management. Sparse‐flowering cultivars averaged 9% greater crude protein (CP), 3% lower neutral detergent fiber (NDF), 2% greater NDF digestibility, and 2% greater in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) than normal cultivars. For the two digestibility measures, differential panicle density between the cultivar groups explained a significant portion of variability, indicating that the increase in forage quality was proportional to the decrease in panicle density below a threshold of about 50 panicles m⁻2. Lastly, differences in regrowth forage quality between cultivar groups were smaller, less consistent, and of lesser statistical significance than for first harvest. While selection for sparse flowering in orchardgrass resulted in significant cause‐and‐effect increases in first‐harvest forage quality, these effects were too small to offset the reduced forage yield associated with the sparse‐flowering trait.

This study evaluated the effects of Lactobacillus plantarum with or without Lactobacillus buchneri on the fermentation and aerobic stability of mixed tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb) and meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis Huds.) silage ensiled at different dry matter (DM) contents. The first cut was harvested at boot stage and second-cut grasses were harvested when 30- to 35-cm tall. Four DM content treatments of the first cut were 17.9, 24.9, 34.6, and 48.7%; and of the second cut were 29.1, 36.3, 44.1, and 49.2%. Chopped grasses at each DM content were treated with (1) deionized water (control), (2) Lb. plantarum MTD-1 (LP), or (3) a combination of Lb. plantarum MTD-1 and Lb. buchneri 40788 (LP+LB). The application amount of each inoculant to the fresh forage was 1 × 10(6) cfu/g. Grasses were ensiled in vacuum-sealed polyethylene bags containing 150 g of DM for 60 d, with 4 replicates for each treatment. Silages inoculated with LP+LB had greater pH compared with untreated or LP-treated silages. Lactate was greater in LP silage than control or LP+LB silages. As silage DM increased, lactate in untreated and LP-treated silages decreased, but increased in LP+LB-treated silage. Acetate concentration decreased with increased DM in all silages. The LP+LB-treated silage had the longest and control silage the shortest aerobic stability for both harvests. The greatest values in aerobic stability were observed in silages with highest DM content. In this study, aerobic stability of grass mixes ensiled between 18 and 44% DM content increased as the percentage of DM increased. The LP and LP+LB inoculants improved aerobic stability of silages harvested between 18 and 44% DM content.

A fully developed integrated pest management (IPM) system uses all available strategies for a given pest or pest complex in a cropping system; incorporating host plant resistance, biological, cultural and physical controls and chemical control when necessary (Pedigo, 1999). Several such management strategies have been developed in alfalfa for the potato leafhopper (Empoasca fabae) (PLH). The first glandular haired varieties of alfalfa, bred for resistance to PLH were released for market in 1997. Field studies of these varieties have been met with varying levels of success. Lefko et al. (2000) observed that established resistant alfalfa stands could tolerate up to 2.5 greater the PLH pressure as a susceptible stand. However, when leafhopper pressure is low, resistant alfalfa has expressed some amount of yield drag (Hogg et al. 1998, Hansen et al. 2002). The presence of grasses in alfalfa fields has also been correlated to a reduction in PLH abundance. Degooyer et al. (1999) showed that both orchardgrass and bromegrass intercropped in alfalfa stands significantly reduced the number of PLH present, but noted it was not enough to keep populations below economic thresholds. Grasses are also promoted as an intercrop with alfalfa for the increase in digestible fibers and decrease in non-fiber carbohydrates they provide, which can help reduce incidence of ruminal acidosis (Lee, 2011).

Increased seed cost of glyphosate tolerant (GT) compared to non‐GT alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) raises questions about reducing seeding rates. The objective of this study was to determine if alfalfa stand density, yield, and forage quality are compromised in the later years of the stand when reduced seeding rates, in combination with glyphosate application, were used during establishment. At seven locations in the United States, GT alfalfa was seeded into conventionally tilled seedbeds at 6.7, 11.2, 15.7, and 20.2 kg ha−1 pure live seed (PLS) in the spring of 2006. Stand density, yield, and forage quality were determined for each seeding rate under three herbicide treatments: (i) glyphosate [N‐(phosphonomethyl)glycine], (ii) non‐glyphosate herbicide, and (iii) no herbicide. For the third through fifth years of the alfalfa stand, there was no herbicide treatment × seeding rate interaction. Higher seeding rates resulted in higher plant densities. The 11.2 and 15.7 kg ha−1 seeding rates had greater alfalfa and total forage (alfalfa + weeds) yields than the 6.7 kg ha−1 seeding rate. Herbicide treatments had no effect on alfalfa plant density but produced cumulative (over the duration of the study) alfalfa yield in the following order: glyphosate > non‐glyphosate > no herbicide. Cumulative total forage yield was less when no herbicide was used compared to using a herbicide. While forage fiber content was generally unaffected by seeding rate or herbicide treatments, using glyphosate to control weeds during alfalfa establishment increased forage crude protein content of older alfalfa stands compared to no weed control.

The pH optimum and thermostability of both exopeptidases and endopeptidases were investigated in this study to elucidate the possible role of plant proteases in proteolysis during ensiling of alfalfa herbage. Proteolytic activities of 4 classes of endopeptidases (i.e., serine, metallo, aspartic, and cysteine peptidase) and 5 classes of exopeptidases (i.e., aminopeptidase, carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase, dipeptidyl-peptidase, and tripeptidyl-peptidase) were examined within pH values of 3 to 9, and within temperatures from 20 to 90°C. Serine and metalloproteases, the principal endopeptidases that hydrolyzed most of the protein to nonprotein nitrogen in alfalfa silage, had optimum activities at pH 4. Among the major exopeptidases contributing protein degradation in ensiled alfalfa, dipeptidase and tripeptidyl-peptidase had stable activities between pH 4 and 6, and carboxypeptidase activity was optimal at pH 5. The optimum temperature for most peptidase activities was 40°C. Proteolytic activities of both endo- and exopeptidases increased with the elevation of incubating temperature from 20 to 40°C. The pH value in well-preserved alfalfa silage is often above 4.0, and the temperatures in the ensiled mass range from 25 to 40°C. Therefore, high proteolytic activities between pH 4 and 6 and the temperature range of ensiled alfalfa suggest that plant peptidases play a role in hydrolyzing protein during prolonged storage.

The objective of this research was to investigate the effects of replacing part of corn silage (CS) and alfalfa hay (AH) with Leymus chinensis hay on milk production and composition. Twenty multiparous Holstein dairy cows were used in a randomized block design for a 14-week period and 2 treatments. Treatments were (dry matter basis): (1) Non-Leymus chinensis hay diet (NLC; 35% CS, 15% AH) and (2) added Leymus chinensis hay diet (ALC; 30% CS, 10% AH, 10% Leymus chinensis hay). Adding Leymus chinensis hay increased neutral detergent fiber content and in vitro digestibility of the diet. Cows receiving the ALC diet had higher dry matter intake, milk yield, milk protein yield, lactose yield, solids-not-fat yield, and milk fat content compared with those fed the NLC diet. Somatic cell counts of cows decreased in the ALC compared with the NLC treatment. Cis-11 18:1 and 18:2 contents in milk increased, whereas trans-9 and cis-9 18:1 fatty acid contents decreased. Trans-9, cis-11 conjugated linoleic acid content was not influenced by adding Leymus chinensis hay to the diet. Leymus chinensis hay can be used to replace part of CS and AH in diets of dairy cows to get higher milk yield and good milk quality.

The benefits of using new breeding techniques for alfalfa improvement are just being developed. These GMO alfalfa varieties will revolutionize the using and management of alfalfa. This paper presents information on the development of two GMO alfalfa traits (Roundup Ready and Low Lignin Alfalfa) that will provide new tools for many farmers. It will mention some other research/development being conducted. Roundup Ready Alfalfa Forage Genetics International began developing Roundup Ready alfalfa in 1994. The inserted gene produced the same protein as found in other roundup ready crops on the market. In conventional plants, glyphosate binds to an enzyme, blocking the biosynthesis of aromatic amino acids and depriving the plant of essential components (Haslam, 1993; Steinrucken and Amrheim, 1980). The RR plants are similar to non GMO plants but has a greatly reduced affinity for glyphosate (Padgette et al., 1995). Commercialized RR alfalfa varieties use two independent events (J101 and J163) combined through a commercial breeding process (Samac et al., 2004). Alfalfa varieties are heterogeneous populations with individual plants being phenotypically and genotypically unique. The populations of alfalfa plants in commercial Roundup Ready varieties consist of individual plants with zero to eight copies of the cp4 epsps gene insert, contributed by either event J101 or J163. The Roundup Ready phenotype is exhibited if one or more copies of the RR gene are present in the plant. While useful to all farmers, RR alfalfa provides great benefit to the grower where weed control has been an issue in the production of alfalfa. First, glyphosate does not injure alfalfa as the most commonly used preand post-planting herbicides do. Further, imazethapyr has risk of yield loss with the crop following alfalfa when flax, corn, meadow bromegrass, oriental mustard, sunflower, timothy and wheat were seeded 1 year after herbicide application to the alfalfa, canola seeded up to 2 years later, and sugarbeet and potato seeded up to 3 years later (Moyer and Easu, 1996). Glyphosate can be used on RR alfalfa at very high rates with no detectible crop injury. Multiple studies by the senior author have shown an average yield reduction of 0.2 t/a for the cutting following imazethapyr or imazamox application to alfalfa compared to glyphosate. Another advantage of RR alfalfa is that glyphosate can be applied over a wider time window for effective weed control so that weather delays are less of an issue. Most other post emergent herbicides need to be applied when weeds are small, requiring greater rates and being less effective on larger weeds. Glyphosate controls a wider range of weeds than most other herbicides for alfalfa. One of the benefits of RR alfalfa will be the ability to use glyphosate to get much better control of D. Undersander, University of Wisconsin, 1575 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706 email: djunders@wisc.edu Proc. of the 2010 Wisconsin Crop Management Conference, Vol. 49 95 winter annuals such as chickweed, wild garlic, wild onion, perennials such as dandelion, difficult weeds such as nutsedge and dodder, and poisonous weeds such as groundsel. All have been difficult to control, in some cases, limited to dormant herbicide applications so that control was not an option when the problem was visible. Further dormant herbicides are discriminated against in northern regions because, if winterkill occurs, no crop can be planted in the field during the following growing season. Another advantage of the RR alfalfa system is safety. Glyphosate is among the safest pesticide used on farms. It has an extremely low acute toxicity (the oral LD50 in the rat of pure glyphosate is 4,230 mg/kg, or 5,600 mg/). In fact, some of the surfactants mixed with glyphosate are more toxic than the herbicide. Glyphosate is inactivated when it comes into contact with soil since it is adsorbed onto soil particles in the same way as inorganic phosphates. Unbound glyphosate is rapidly degraded by microbial activity to carbon dioxide. Because of its adsorption to soil, glyphosate is not easily leached and is unlikely to contaminate ground water (Giesy et al., 2000) unlike certain other herbicides used on alfalfa (e.g., Velpar). Lastly there is a significant ease of use factor with glyphosate on RR crops since is not a restricted pesticide so growers do not need pesticide applicator certification to apply this compound. Also, many farmers growing corn or soybeans will already be using glyphosate. Therefore, they will not need separate herbicide storage or record keeping; they will not need to clean the sprayer or change nozzles when moving from one crop to another. There will also be less risk of drift onto a susceptible crop or the potential for spraying the wrong herbicide onto a susceptible crop. Glyphosate resistance has been reported in approximately a dozen weeds (Boerboom and Owen, 2006; https://www.extension.purdue.edu/extmedia/gwc/gwc-1.pdf). Some have been concerned that alfalfa as the third crop in the corn-soybean-alfalfa rotation of many dairy farmers would increase the rate of resistance development in weeds. However, including a forage crop in rotation with row crops will generally enhance weed control because some weeds cannot tolerate the frequent defoliation of a forage crop (Martin et al., 1967). It is believed that inclusion of alfalfa in corn-soybean rotations will be another tool to slow development of weed resistance to glyphosate. Thus the key to minimizing development of resistant weed populations and weed shifts will be the recommended stewardship of using multiple herbicides in rotational systems combined multiple mechanical controls such as preplant tillage and frequent mowing of alfalfa.

In 1990, an unknown forage grass was discovered growing in the shade of a remnant oak savanna in southwestern Wisconsin. Over 12 years, the practice of feeding mature hay on winter pastures spread this grass onto over 500 ha via seedling recruitment. Analysis of amplified fragment length polymorphic (AFLP) markers on 561 plants, compared to a diverse sample of wild European collections of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), Italian ryegrass (L. multiflorum Lam.), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis Huds. = L. pratense (Huds.) Darbysh.), and tall fescue (F. arundinacea Schreb.), identified a highly diverse population that was more closely allied with F. pratensis than the other species, based on genetic distances. Genomic in situ hybridization (GISH), using both Lolium- and Festuca-specific probes, led to effective hybridizations by only the Festuca-specific probes and gave indications of close homology to the F. pratensis genome. Similarly, genetic distance analysis using PCR-based Lolium expressed sequence tag (EST) markers on a subset of genotypes, compared to the four control species, clearly identified F. pratensis as the closest relative. Sequence analysis of the trnL intron of cpDNA distinguished the unknown plants from F. arundinacea, but not from Lolium. Additional survey work has identified this grass on 12 other farms within an area of about 20,000 ha. Soil samples accompanying plant samples indicated no seed banks and most farm records indicate no commercially introduced seeds during the twentieth century. We hypothesize that seeds of meadow fescue may have arrived with some of the earliest European immigrants to Wisconsin and spread along the historic Military Ridge Trail, a network of frontier U.S. Army forts connected by a major thoroughfare.

The ability to predict when a cool‐season forage grass cultivar will begin inflorescence emergence under different ecogeographical conditions would allow plant breeders, agronomists, and grass‐seed marketers to better position that cultivar into a forage production system. Our objective was to determine the ecogeographical factors (longitude, latitude, elevation, day of year when average daily temperature exceeds 0°C for five consecutive days [DOY at 0°C], cumulative growing degree‐day [GDD], photoperiod, and cumulative photosynthetic active radiation [PAR]) that have the greatest effect on grass maturation in the spring. Inflorescence emergence was monitored in established cultivars of festulolium (× Festulolium spp.), orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L.), ryegrass (Lolium perenne L. and Lolium multiflorum Lam.), tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), and timothy (Phleum pratense L.) at eight locations in North America during the spring of 2004 and 2005. As latitude increased, the day of year when grasses reached 1% inflorescence emergence (DOY) also increased, while cumulative GDD and PAR decreased. Latitude, cumulative PAR, and DOY at 0°C were more closely correlated (r2 ≥ 0.67) to the onset of inflorescence emergence than the other variables. Latitude combined with the inverse transformation of PAR provided the best prediction of when these grasses would initiate inflorescence emergence (validation R2 for all species ≥ 0.83).

Phosphorus is a vital nonrenewable natural resource that is essential for plant and animal growth. Grass swards and buffer strips can be used to reduce P losses that occur by soil erosion, surface runoff, or leaching. The objective of this study was to conduct one cycle of divergent selection for P concentration in reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) and to evaluate the effects of selection on P concentration, forage yield, and P uptake (the product of P concentration and forage yield). Divergent selections and original populations were evaluated in sward plots, harvested three times per year for 2 yr at three locations. Selection responses indicated that P concentration is a heritable trait in reed canarygrass; that genetic gains were highly repeatable across harvests, locations, and years; and that there is a negative genetic correlation between P concentration and sward‐plot forage yield. Future selection efforts must be based on genotypic selection methods, in which half‐sib families are evaluated for forage yield, P concentration, and P uptake in sward plots.

Alfalfa ( Medicago sativa L.) proteins ingested by dairy cows typically degrade at rapid rates and exhibit extensive ruminal degradability. Although the effects of conservation method (hay or silage) on these characteristics have been evaluated extensively, agronomic factors, such as harvest timing, have not. Our objective was to quantify rumen degradable protein (RDP) for ‘Affinity’ alfalfa harvested over a range of ages (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 d following Stage 2) within each of four harvest periods (spring, early and late summer, and fall). For 2004, there were no interactions ( P ≥ 0.372) between harvest period and days within harvest period for any protein component. Crude protein (CP), neutral‐detergent soluble CP (NDSCP; g kg −1 dry matter [DM]), and RDP (g kg −1 DM) declined in a quadratic ( P ≤ 0.026) relationship with days following Stage 2. A quadratic ( P = 0.002) pattern also was observed for rumen undegradable protein (RUP), but the overall range was small (60.4–66.5 g kg −1 DM). On a CP basis, RDP declined linearly ( P < 0.001) from 720 to 659 g kg −1 CP during 2004. For 2005, there were interactions ( P ≤ 0.020) of harvest period and days within period for all protein‐related response variables, but trends over time within each harvest period generally were similar to those observed in 2004. Overall, RDP declined as alfalfa plants aged within harvest period, but these responses were due pri marily to reduced concentrations of CP within the cell‐soluble fraction.

In the USA, biomass crop systems will be needed to meet future ethanol production goals. We estimated production costs, profits, and energy budgets for three potential crop systems for the Upper Midwest: continuous corn with stover harvest, an alfalfa–corn rotation with stover harvest, and switchgrass. Production costs, profits, and on-farm energy use were greatest for continuous corn, less for alfalfa–corn, and least for switchgrass. Energy to transport crops was similar for all crop systems. Both energy used to produce ethanol and energy output in ethanol was greatest for continuous corn, less for alfalfa–corn, and least for switchgrass. Co-product energy output was 32% greater for alfalfa–corn than continuous corn and 42% greater than switchgrass. Net energy produced (outputs–inputs) was greatest for switchgrass, followed by continuous corn, and then alfalfa–corn. Efficiency of energy production (outputs/inputs) was greatest for switchgrass, followed by alfalfa–corn, and then continuous corn. Our analysis emphasizes tradeoffs among crop systems. Corn may produce high rates of ethanol and net energy, but will do so least efficiently and with the greatest erosion and N leaching. Corn may have the greatest production costs, but return the greatest profit. Comparatively, alfalfa–corn will produce less ethanol and net energy, but will do so more efficiently, and with less erosion and little N leaching. Production costs, but also profits, may be less for alfalfa–corn than continuous corn. Switchgrass may produce the most net energy and will do so most efficiently and with the least erosion, but will also yield the least ethanol. Nitrogen leaching will be less for switchgrass than corn, but greater than alfalfa–corn. Switchgrass may be the least expensive to produce, but may return a profit only if selling prices or yields are high.

The effect of late summer (fall) planting date for cool‐season grasses in the upper Midwest is not well understood. Objectives of this research were to determine optimum planting dates of late‐summer/fall seedings in different environments for several cool‐season grass species and to gain information on tiller density and tillers plant −1 relative to dry matter yield. Late‐summer/fall seedings of six forage grasses were made approximately every 2 to 3 wk in 1995, 1996, and 1997 at three sites in Wisconsin. Species included orchardgrass ( Dactylis glomerata L.), smooth bromegrass ( Bromus inermis Leyss.), timothy ( Phleum pretense L.), reed canary grass ( Phalaris arundinacea L.), perennial ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.), creeping foxtail (Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir.), and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.). Yield was taken the next spring and plants destructively sampled for plant and tiller counts. Seedings made by mid‐ to late‐September produced stands having visible plants by killing frost at all locations except for 1 yr at River Falls. Seedings after mid‐September generally did not produce visible plants until spring, if at all. Many of these seedings failed to produce a stand the next year. Earlier seeding dates usually had more tillers m −2 , more tillers plant −1 , and higher dry matter yield the following season with first‐cut maximums ranging from 3.6 to 6.7 Mg ha −1 . Perennial ryegrass, smooth bromegrass, timothy, reed canarygrass and/or tall fescue, often were among the highest yielding species at the earlier seeding dates. At later late summer seeding dates, reed canarygrass, tall fescue, and creeping foxtail usually had low dry matter yield the next year.