We describe a technique for spectrograph stabilization useful when conventional mitigation techniques of vacuum tanks, thermal insulation, and laser frequency comb may be impractical, expensive, heavy, or bulky. This includes spectrographs on airborne platforms or mounted on telescopes where they suffer a changing gravity vector or other drifts. Placing a fixed-delay interferometer in series with a spectrograph forms an externally dispersed interferometer (EDI). This produces a uniform sinusoidal comb multiplying input spectrum, creating (through heterodyning) beats (moir & eacute; patterns). In Fourier space for low frequencies up to the comb frequency, the moir & eacute; generated signal counter-rotates to ordinary spectra under an unknown disperser wavenumber drift Delta x. This generates a large negative feedback signal useful in a conceptual control loop, to converge rapidly to a stable spectrum and yield Delta x. A modified EDI data analysis algorithm ("crossfading") combines frequency-weighted moir & eacute; with conventional spectrum to cancel net output spectrum reaction to Delta x. Needing only a single-delay, this is a practical improvement over prior crossfading analyses requiring multiple delays. We test crossfading on ThAr data near 4850 cm(-1) taken on Hale telescope in an earlier project. In a single pass, we reduce drift 20 times. Using seven iterations, we reduce 0.5 cm(-1) (31 km/s Doppler equivalent) drift to 4 & times;10(-7) cm(-1) (2.5 cm/s). The interferometer delay can wander, because linearity of phase versus wavenumber interpolates science features between bracketing calibrating spectral references. Second, mathematically reversing the heterodyning effect doubles effective spectral resolution without changing disperser slit.

On December 5, 2022, an indirect drive fusion implosion on the National Ignition Facility (NIF) achieved a target gain G_{target} of 1.5. This is the first laboratory demonstration of exceeding "scientific breakeven" (or G_{target}>1) where 2.05 MJ of 351 nm laser light produced 3.1 MJ of total fusion yield, a result which significantly exceeds the Lawson criterion for fusion ignition as reported in a previous NIF implosion [H. Abu-Shawareb et al. (Indirect Drive ICF Collaboration), Phys. Rev. Lett. 129, 075001 (2022)PRLTAO0031-900710.1103/PhysRevLett.129.075001]. This achievement is the culmination of more than five decades of research and gives proof that laboratory fusion, based on fundamental physics principles, is possible. This Letter reports on the target, laser, design, and experimental advancements that led to this result.

Theory and experiments show that, with increasing pressure, the chemical bonds of methane rearrange, leading to the formation of complex polymers and then to dissociation. However, there is disagreement on the exact conditions where these changes take place. In this study, methane samples were precompressed in diamond-anvil cells and then shock compressed to pressures reaching 400 GPa, the highest pressures yet explored in methane. The results reveal a qualitative change in the Hugoniot curve at 80-150 GPa, which is interpreted as a signature of dissociation based on thermodynamic calculations and theoretical predictions.

Pulsed power generators create high-energy-density conditions by rapidly delivering an immense pulse of electrical current to a compact imploding load. Accurately measuring the shape and amplitude of this load current pulse is essential to understanding the behavior of all pulsed power experiments. At the Z Pulsed Power Facility, the closest-in load current measurements are provided by velocimetry techniques such as VISAR (velocity interferometer system for any reflector) and PDV (photonic Doppler velocimetry). Here, fiber-coupled interferometers measure the velocity history of an exploding metallic flyer plate that is embedded in the vertical walls of the current return can. The flyer plate is driven outward by the magnetic pressure from the load current such that magnetohydrodynamic modeling can be used to determine the load current waveform from the measured velocity history. In this paper, we present the first load current velocimetry measurements to be made from the horizontal top flyer plate that carries current radially inward from the return can to the load. These spatially resolved measurements, which span R = 5- 9 mm, are enabled by a transformative new velocimetry diagnostic-a line-imaging velocity interferometer called Z Line VISAR (ZLV)-whose optical performance overcomes the measurement challenges presented by the steep velocity gradients encountered on the top flyer plate. To validate ZLV's capabilities, a 14-MA, 100-ns experiment was conducted to losslessly couple current up the return can and radially inward across the top flyer plate. Comparisons between the ZLV data obtained from this experiment and two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulations driven with the current measured on the return can indicate that the current delivery across the top flyer plate is indeed lossless to within the few-percent uncertainty of the ZLV data. Given that the current coupling is lossless, the experimental results are used to demonstrate that one-dimensional current unfold techniques can be applied to generate a radially resolved load current map from the ZLV velocity data. This analysis provides a template for how to use the ZLV diagnostic to determine the efficacy of current delivery in future experiments where losses may occur in close proximity to the load.

(CF1) Dark Matter: Particle Like (CF2) Dark Matter: Wavelike (CF3) Dark Matter: Cosmic Probes (CF4) Dark Energy and Cosmic Acceleration: The Modern Universe (CF5) Dark Energy and Cosmic Acceleration: Cosmic Dawn and Before (CF6) Dark Energy and Cosmic Acceleration: Complementarity of Probes and New Facilities (CF7) Cosmic Probes of Fundamental Physics (Other) [Please specify frontier/topical group]

We built an externally dispersed interferometer (EDI) testbed for exploring methods of improving high resolution spectrograph performance. We tested the EDI on the Keck Planet Finder (KPF) spectrograph May 11, 2022 measuring a Fabry-Perot (FP) etalon back lit by white light. This is also the first time an EDI has been used to measure a periodic source. The data shows that the EDI is useful for diagnosing the point spread function (PSF) width and shape, in particular the asymmetry of the PSF. This EDI ability comes because EDI can simultaneously measure both the conventional nonfringing spectrum, and the fringing derived spectrum. A conventional spectrograph resolution is limited by slit blur– the EDI resolution is not. A heterodyning effect shifts the fringing sensitivity peak to arbitrarily higher frequency, set by the interferometer delay value, and thus its resolution can exceed the spectrograph used alone. By comparing the Fourier transforms of the two measured signals, we can compare the phase shift changes, which gives information about the small asymmetry of the spectrograph blur, independent of the much larger asymmetry of the FP source spectrum. We show that comparing the phases of the nonfringing and fringing components versus harmonic number in the Fourier Transform is a useful method for measuring the asymmetry in the PSF. We report the first measurements of an EDI measuring a periodic source, which is a Fabry-Perot (FP) interferometer back illuminated by white light. The periodic character of the FP source created spikes in the Fourier transform, which was very convenient for analysis.

Carbon is the fourth-most prevalent element in the Universe and essential for all known life. In the elemental form it is found in multiple allotropes, including graphite, diamond and fullerenes, and it has long been predicted that even more structures can exist at pressures greater than those at Earth's core(1-3). Several phases have been predicted to exist in the multi-terapascal regime, which is important for accurate modelling of the interiors of carbon-rich exoplanets(4,5.) By compressing solid carbon to 2 terapascals (20 million atmospheres; more than five times the pressure at Earth's core) using ramp-shaped laser pulses and simultaneously measuring nanosecond-duration time-resolved X-ray diffraction, we found that solid carbon retains the diamond structure far beyond its regime of predicted stability. The results confirm predictions that the strength of the tetrahedral molecular orbital bonds in diamond persists under enormous pressure, resulting in large energy barriers that hinder conversion to more-stable high-pressure allotropes(1,2), just as graphite formation from metastable diamond is kinetically hindered at atmospheric pressure. This work nearly doubles the highest pressure at which X-ray diffraction has been recorded on any material.

Laser-shock compression experiments at 3rd and 4th generation light sources generally employ phase plates, which are inserted into the beamline to achieve a repeatable intensity distribution at the focal plane. Here, the laser intensity profile is characterized by a high-contrast, high-frequency laser speckle. Without sufficient smoothing, these laser non-uniformities can translate to a significant pressure distribution within the sample layer and can affect data interpretation in x-ray diffraction experiments. Here, we use a combination of one- and two-dimensional velocity interferometry to directly measure the extent to which spatial frequencies within the laser focal spot intensity pattern are smoothed out during propagation within the laser plasma and a polyimide ablator. We find that the use of thicker polyimide layers results in spatially smoother shock fronts, with the greatest degree of smoothing associated with the highest spatial frequencies. Focal spots with the smallest initial speckle separation produce the most rapid smoothing. Laser systems that employ smoothing by spectral dispersion techniques to rapidly modulate the focal plane intensity distribution are shown to be the most effective ones in producing a spatially smooth shock front. We show that a simple transport model combined with the known polyimide Hugoniot adequately describes the extent of shock smoothness as a function of polyimide thickness. Our results provide a description of spatial structure smoothing across a shock front, which can be used to design targets on x-ray free electron laser facilities.

Breakthroughs in physics and astrophysics are often driven by technological advances, with the recent detection of gravitational waves being one such example. This white paper focuses upon how improved astrometric and spectroscopic measurements from a new generation of precise, accurate, and stable astronomical instrumentation can address two of the fundamental mysteries of our time – dark energy and dark matter – and probe the nature of spacetime. Instrumentation is now on the cusp of enabling new cosmological measurements based on redshifts (cosmic redshift drift) and extremely precise time-series measurements of accelerations, astrophysical source positions (astrometry), and angles (cosmic parallax). These allow tests of the fundamental framework of the universe (the Friedmann equations of general relativity and whether cosmic expansion is physically accelerating) and its contents (dark energy evolution and dark matter behavior), while also anchoring the cosmic distance scale (H_0).

State of the art astrophysics demands extremely stable wavelength measurements, e.g. few cm/s scale Doppler radial velocimetry for Earth-like planet detection or multi-year cosmic redshift drift measurements. We present new techniques for 500 − 1000× improvement in stability using an interferometer in series with a spectrograph to form an Externally Dispersed Interferometer (EDI). When the received spectrum suffers a wavelength jitter, the phase of the moir´e pattern from the interferometer delay shifts in opposite directions for two signal paths, nonfringing and fringing; with appropriate weightings (“crossfading”) the net phase reaction cancels, stabilizing the spectrum. We present an improvement to our previous technique of multiple delays, using a single delay to crossfade, and demonstrate stabilization of ≳ 500× on existing Hale Telescope data. Single-delay EDIs are easier to construct and operate than those with multiple delays, and the EDI ensures that exactly the same pixels are used for the science and calibration signals, and in constant proportion under intensity fluctuations, greatly easing positional requirements.

Recent studies show a face-centered cubic (fcc) to body-centered cubic (bcc) transformation along the shock Hugoniot for several metals (i.e., Cu, Au, and Ag). Here, we combine laser-shock compression of Cu foils on nanosecond timescales with in situ x-ray diffraction (XRD) to examine the microstructural changes with stress. We study the fcc phase and the phase transition from fcc to bcc (pressures greater than 180 GPa). Textural analysis of the azimuthal intensities from the XRD images is consistent with transformation into the bcc phase through the Pitsch-distortion mechanism. We use embedded atom model molecular dynamics simulations to determine the stability of the bcc phase in pressure–temperature space. Our results indicate that the bcc phase is stabilized only at high temperatures and remains stable at pressures greater than 500 GPa.

For more than half a century, researchers around the world have been engaged in attempts to achieve fusion ignition as a proof of principle of various fusion concepts. As recently reported, a burning plasma state, where the alpha-heating in the plasma is the primary source of heating, was achieved in laboratory experiments. Following the Lawson criterion, an ignited plasma is one where the fusion heating power is high enough to overcome all the physical processes that cool the fusion plasma, creating a positive thermodynamic feedback loop with rapidly increasing temperature. In inertially confined fusion, ignition is a state where the fusion plasma can begin ``burn propagation'' into surrounding cold fuel, enabling the possibility of high energy gain. While ``scientific breakeven'' (i.e. unity target gain) has not yet been achieved, this talk reports the first controlled fusion experiment on the National Ignition Facility to produce capsule gain greater than unity (here 5.8) and reach ignition by many different formulations of the Lawson criterion. In the talk, we will discuss some key basic physics inertial confinement fusion (ICF) principles behind the burning plasma and ignition results as well as discuss future challenges.

We present preliminary results from a multi-plane camera, exploring 3D image reconstruction of a high speed velocimetry target beyond a single depth of field.

By weighting signal components from at least two overlapping delays in an externally dispersed interferometer one can reduce by about 1000x the net shift in response to a wavelength drift in the disperser.

We explore a concept retrieving Doppler-shift and 3D location of coherently- illuminated moving objects in a 3D volume from recordings of the reflected light through a velocity interferometer and a multi-plane imager.