There is evidence supporting clearance of the Tritrichomonas foetus in young bulls. The reasons for mature bulls becoming chronic carriers and resolution of venereal infections in young bulls have not been illuminated. It has been hypothesized that there is variation in the inflammatory response in the reproductive tract as the bull ages. Hence, the objectives of this study were to evaluate the immune cell population in the normal bovine penile and preputial epithelium and to examine any differences in cell populations between young and mature age groups. Our hypothesis was that there are significant differences in immune cell types within the penile and preputial epithelium and dermis of young versus mature bulls.

Selecting bulls for reproductive soundness requires that the bull be structurally sound, free of abnormalities that impair his ability to produce adequate numbers of motile, morphologically normal spermatozoa, and be able to successfully complete coitus. This review discusses the diagnosis and etiology of abnormalities of the penis, prepuce as well as common musculoskeletal conditions that prevent normal pasture breeding soundness. A review of testicular and thermoregulation addresses the potential impact of musculoskeletal disorders on normal sperm production.

OBJECTIVE:To determine the baseline pH and temperature of the preputial cavity of bulls.METHODS:We enrolled 55 bulls ranging in age from 15 to 84 months. The preputial temperature and pH were measured by insertion of temperature and pH probes, respectively, into the preputial orifice prior to routine breeding soundness examinations. Information was obtained from owners regarding the diet of each bull and categorised as one of three categories: forage only, grain supplemented or silage supplemented.RESULTS:The average temperature of the prepuce was 37.81°C ± 1.76 and the median pH of the prepuce was 8.45 (6.35-9.46). Preputial temperatures of the bull weakly correlated with ambient temperatures (rs  = -0.29, P = 0.028). The preputial pH of silage-fed bulls was significantly lower than that of bulls fed forage only (P = 0.025) or grain-supplemented diets (P = 0.002). The median preputial pH of bulls fed a silage-based diet was 7.6 (6.3-8.9) compared with a median pH 8.7 (7.8-9.1) for bulls fed forage-based diets or a median of 8.5 (7.7-9.4) for those given grain-supplemented diets.CONCLUSION:Diet and ambient temperature can, respectively, affect pH and the temperature in the prepuce. Further studies to describe and understand the microbiota of the prepuce and penis may assist in developing treatments for diseases of the genital tract in bulls.

Currently, there are no legal treatments in the United States for cattle infected with Tritrichomonas foetus. This obligate parasite of the reproductive tract of the bovid creates serious economic loss in the cattle industry in the United States. The hypothesis of this study was that benzimidazoles (oxibendazole or oxfendazole) or ponazuril combined with a polymer enhancer, specifically polymer lecithin organogel (PLO), in a topical formulation may be an effective treatment for bulls infected with r foetus. Three in vitro experiments were performed to evaluate the antiprotozoal effects of the benzimidazole and ponazuril formulations, and all involved components on the growth of r foetus organisms.

Hyaluronan (HA), a glycosaminoglycan, is a major component of the pericellular matrix which envelopes mammalian cells. Binding of hyaluronan to one of its specific receptors, CD44, modulates transduction of intracellular signals which direct a variety of processes, including embryogenesis, wound healing, inflammation, and neoplasia. Since regulation of these processes is critical to equine reproductive success, localization of constitutive CD44 expression was evaluated by immunohistochemical methods in ovarian, oviductal, and uterine tissues from healthy mares. Ovarian stroma contained thecal cells with varying CD44 immunopositivity. Follicular and granulosa cells of some antral and atretic follicles were positive for CD44. In the oviduct, the luminal epithelium was variably positive for CD44, with overall decreasing intensity of immunostaining from the infundibulum to the isthmus. The CD44 molecule was expressed strongly by surface epithelial cells of the uterine endometrium, but was present only rarely among cells of uterine glands. In addition, CD44 was expressed by smooth muscle cells of vascular walls, oviduct, and uterus. Since CD44 is known to modulate cell movement and differentiation, and was present at multiple sites in the reproductive tract of normal mares, we inferred there may be an important role for the HA-CD44 signaling pathway in reproductive function and inflammation.

The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of Tritrichomonas foetus infections in Alabama (USA) beef bulls through prospective and retrospective surveys. The prospective survey included 240 Alabama beef bulls that were sampled between January 2005 and March 2006. Preputial smegma was collected from the 240 bulls with a dry pipette and cultured in an InPouch™ TF T. foetus culture pouch (BioMed Diagnostics; White City, OR, USA). The samples were evaluated microscopically once a day for 6 days for growth resembling T. foetus. To avoid false-positives due to fecal trichomonads, all suspect cultures were sent to both the Alabama Department of Agriculture Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory in Auburn, AL, USA and the Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine Parasitology Laboratory (Auburn, AL, USA) for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) confirmatory assays. Of the 240 bulls cultured in the prospective survey, 3 (1.25%) cultures were considered suspect on microscopic evaluation. However, PCR-based assays were negative for T. foetus, suggesting that the samples most likely contained fecal trichomonads. The retrospective analysis included 374 T. foetus cultures performed at the Alabama Department of Agriculture Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory between October 2002 and March 2005. Of the 374 bulls included in the retrospective analysis, only 1 (0.27%) was confirmed positive by a PCR-based assay.

Bulls affected with septic seminal vesiculitis are often classified as unsatisfactory potential breeders due to leukocyte contamination, poor sperm motility and other abnormalities noted during the breeding soundness examination.1,2 The prognosis of chronically affected bulls for resolution of this condition using antimicrobial therapy, sclerosing agents or surgical removal is guarded at best.1,2,5 Because of this poor response to present treatment options, we performed a preliminary study investigating a method of chemically ablating the entire seminal vesicle with a 4% formaldehyde solution. In horses, ablation of ethmoidal hematomas and salivary glands using a 4% formaldehyde solution is successfully documented.3,4 The goal of this study was to determine the feasibility of injecting the seminal vesicles of healthy bulls, percutaneously, with a 4% solution of formaldehyde, and the efficacy of this procedure in ablating the parenchyma of the seminal vesicles as a potential treatment of chronic septic seminal vesiculitis.

OBJECTIVE:To determine whether testicular needle biopsy is detrimental to testicular function in clinically normal bulls.DESIGN:Prospective study.ANIMALS:6 mixed-breed mature bulls.PROCEDURE:A randomly selected testicle from each bull was biopsied with a 14-gauge needle biopsy instrument. Bulls were then evaluated over a 90-day period for changes in scrotal temperature and thermal patterns, ultrasonographic appearance, and quality of spermatozoa. At the end of the 90-day study, bulls were castrated, and testicles were examined grossly and histologically.RESULTS:Changes were detected in scrotal temperatures and thermal patterns and in the breeding soundness examination results during the first 2 weeks of the study. However, there were no long-term changes in semen quality over the course of the experiment. Hyperechoic areas were detected on ultrasonographic examination and corresponded to the areas of penetration by the biopsy instrument. Microscopic lesions that were indicative of testicular dysfunction were not found.CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE:Results indicate that testicular biopsy is a safe procedure in bulls. Testicular biopsy could possibly be used to further examine bulls that have less than satisfactory results for breeding soundness examinations.

A retrospective observational study was conducted to determine whether agricultural animal caseloads at veterinary teaching hospitals declined between 1995 and 1998. Thereafter, the effect of organizational and demographic factors on 1998 in-house agricultural animal caseloads was examined. Caseload data were obtained from the American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges. Demographic and organizational data were obtained by surveys, telephone interviews, and web-based resources. Complete data were available from 25 veterinary colleges, and data from these schools were used in subsequent analyses. In 1998, in-house food animal caseload decreased relative to 1995 in 17 schools and increased relative to 1995 in 8 schools. This trend was not significant (P = .053); however, the power of the test was limited (.50). Mean 1998 caseload was 886 +/- 504. Among schools with a discipline-based organizational structure, annual mean caseload was 464 +/- 220. Among schools with a species-based organizational structure, mean caseload was 1,167 +/- 463. The regression model that best predicted caseload was a forward-stepping model that included only organizational structure as an independent variable. No additional independent variable was significantly associated with caseload.

This study quantified the relationship between calibrated caliper and ultrasonographic derived measurements of bovine testicles in vivo with actual testicular length, width, volume and weight. The prolate spheroid formula was tested to accurately predict testicular volume and a modification to predict weight. Ten bulls were employed to derive caliper and ultrasound testicle (n=20) length and width measurements in vivo. Caliper length measurements were more reliable than ultrasound derived lengths, with correlations of r(2)=0.8023; P<0.05 and r(2)=0.5111, P<.05, respectively. Width for both the calipers and ultrasound measurements when compared to actual width measurements were r(2)=0.7313; P<0.05 and r(2)=0.8310; P<0.05, respectively. The prolate spheroid formula is reliable in determining testicle (n=116) volume (r(2)=0.8928; P<0.05). Testicular volume and weight are highly correlated (r(2)=0.9776; P<0.05); therefore, a modification of the prolate spheroid formula was used to predict weight (r(2)=0.9084; P<0.05) against the actual weight. Caliper-derived length and width measurements used in the prediction of volume and weight had correlation coefficients against actual volume and weight of r(2)=0.5497; P<0.05 and r(2)=0.6340; P<0.05, respectively. Ultrasound in vivo measurements for prediction of testicular volume and testicular weight had a correlation of r(2)=0.3276; P<0.05 and r(2)=0.6249; P<0.05, respectively. A testicular (n=116) length to width ratio of 1.8:1 (SEM=0.01) was determined for both slaughterhouse and castrated animals. Caliper measurements are reliable, inexpensive and much simpler to obtain than ultrasound determinations for in vivo testicle length, width, volume and weight. The two-dimensional measurement of length and width would be a more accurate predictor of testicle volume and weight than the one-dimensional measurement of scrotal circumference (SC), especially in bulls with variation in testicular shape. (C) 1998 by Elsevier Science Inc.

Asa SL: 1993, The endocrine pancreas and its tumors. Endocr Pathol 4:120-130. Feldman EC, Nelson RW: 1987, Gastrointestinal endocrinology. In: Canine and feline endocrinology and reproduction, ed. Pedersen D, pp. 375-398. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. Happe RP, van der Gaag I, Lamers CBHW, et al.: 1980, Zollinger-Ellison syndrome in three dogs. Vet Pathol 17:177-186. Hawkins KL, Summers BA, Kuhajda FP, Smith CA: 1987, 5.

Although bulls are often culled as a result of scrotal enlargements, it is important for practitioners to identify the cause of the enlargement. Scrotal asymmetry or generalized scrotal enlargement can be caused by congenital abnormalities, neoplasia, trauma, or degenerative disease. Some lesions are treatable; other lesions might not have an effect on fertility. In affected patients, prompt diagnosis and therapy can preserve fertility. This article considers the clinical examination and diagnostic techniques used to differentiate scrotal enlargements. These methods include signalment, history, physical examination, and ancillary diagnostic tests. The common diagnostic differentials for scrotal enlargement are discussed in detail. These differentials include orchitis, periorchitis, trauma, neoplasia, inguinal hernia, varicocele, hydrocele, scrotal edema, epididymitis, and spermatic granuloma. Treatments are also considered, with emphasis on unilateral orchiectomy.

Bulls and bucks were used to study the blood flow into and out of the corpus cavernosum penis (CCP) during the non-erect state of the penis. When contrast medium was injected into the dorsal artery of the penis in a bull cadaver and into surgically implanted catheters of anesthetized bucks, it flowed into the cavernous spaces of the CCP via the penetrating arteries. When contrast medium was injected directly into the CCP of the bull and buck there was no evidence of vascular exits along the body of the penis. The only venous outlets from the CCP were in the crus penis area. In the non-erect penis the vascular pressure within the CCP was 17.8 mm Hg higher in the bull and 8.3 mm Hg higher in the buck at the glans area than the crus area. During the non-erect state of the penis most of the blood flow to the CCP is from the dorsal artery of the penis via the penetrating arteries. The results showed that the pressure gradient provides the means for flow of blood from the glans area toward the base or crus penis area. This flow prevents platelet aggregation and clot formation and provides nutrition to local tissue during the long periods of non-erection.

This study was conducted to determine the relationship between testicular shape, scrotal circumference (SC) and sperm production. Twenty-seven mature Holstein bulls were evaluated subjectively and objectively for testicular shape as indicated by testicular length and width, then placed in 1 of 3 groups. Group 1 contained 17 bulls with a normal ovoid testicular shape and a length to width ratio of 1.61:1 ± 0.01 (SEM). Group 2 was composed of 4 bulls with a long, slender testicular shape and a length to width ratio of 1.95:1 ± 0.06 (SEM). Group 3 was comprised of 6 bulls with spheroid-shaped testicles and a length to width ratio of 1.3:1 ± 0.03 (SEM). All the groups were statistically different for length to width ratios (P < 0.05). Length measurements from cranial to caudal pole of the testis proper were also different between groups (P < 0.05). Width or testicular diameter was different between Group 2 and Group 3 at P < 0.05; however, there was no difference between Group 1 and Group 2 or between Group 1 and Group 3. Predicted volumes and weights of testicles were not significantly different between groups. Scrotal circumference measurements were significantly different between groups (P < 0.05). Group 1 had an average SC of 43.07 ± 0.36 cm (SEM), Group 2 of 39.33 ± 1.18 cm (SEM) and Group 3 of 46.22 ± 0.69 cm (SEM). Sperm production for a twice daily, 2-day-per-week collection schedule revealed a statistically significant difference for sperm output. A total of 2742 ejaculates was evaluated. A total of 1818 ejaculates was evaluated in Group 1, 440 ejaculates in Group 2 and 484 ejaculates in Group 3. The mean spermatozoal harvest per day for Group 1 bulls was 13.62 ± 0.09 × 109 (SEM). Group 2 bulls with the longer-shaped testicles produced 14.82 ± 0.18 × 109 (SEM) spermatozoa per day, and Group 3 bulls, with the more rounded testicle shape and the significantly larger SC produced 11.72 ± 0.64 × 109(SEM) sperm cells per day. All 3 groups were statistically different at the P = 0.05 level. The results suggest that prediction of sperm production may be dependent on factors other than SC, testicular volume, or weight. Testicular shape may influence sperm output in mature Holstein bulls.

A 14-month-old 40-kg Anglo-Nubian buck was referred for erection failure after recurrent bouts of obstructive urolithiasis. Previous episodes of obstructive urolithiasis were treated successfully with amputation of the urethral process, followed by an exploratory celiotomy and insertion of an indwelling Foley catheter into the bladder. The buck had been capable of intromission prior to the most recent episode of urethral obstruction. The results of physical examination and electroejaculation did not reveal any abnormalities, except failure to achieve erection. Contrast radiography of the corpus cavernosum penis (CCP), however, revealed failure of contrast media to migrate proximal to the sigmoid flexure. A diagnosis of obstruction of the CCP caused by cavernositis and fibrosis secondary to urolithiasis was made. A poor prognosis was given for breeding soundness. Although breeding soundness following obstructive urolithiasis may be enhanced by surgical intervention, impotence may result from obstruction of blood flow through the CCP secondary to urethral rupture or urethritis.

For bulls with unilateral evidence of scrotal or testicular pathology, orchiectomy may preserve the animal's breeding value. Here the authors describe the results of this procedure in eight bulls.

A metastatic multicentric neurofibrosarcoma of the lumbosacral plexus in an adult cow is described. The left lumbosacral plexus was obliterated by a mass which extended through the intervertebral foramen into the spinal canal and between the dorsal arches of the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebrae. A closely associated (possibly contiguous) mass extended into and separated the left sacroiliac joint. Multiple similar masses involved peripheral nerves and skeletal muscles of the pelvis, pelvic limbs, and abdominal wall. Metastatic lesions were scattered throughout the lungs. The lumbosacral lesion and all other masses consisted of interwoven bundles of loosely cohesive, elongated cells separated by variable collagenous matrix. Many neoplastic cells were positive for S-100 protein. Ultrastructurally, fibroblastic cells were mixed with scattered cells possessing schwannian characteristics.

Granulosa cell tumors (GCTS) are the most common ovarian tumor of cattle. Although there is some disagreement on the clinical behavior of these neoplasms, they are typically composed of well-differentiated cells, and malignancy in unselected bovine populations is uncommon. This report describes poorly differentiated, malignant ovarian tumors with extensive peritoneal spread in 2 heifers. Two heifers from different farms were presented with marked abdominal distention. Heifer 1 was a weak, recumbent, emaciated, 180-kg, 9-month-old Holstein with poor growth and body condition. Heifer 2 was a lethargic, 454kg, 2-year-old Charolais heifer in fair condition. Clinical examination of both animals revealed a large abdominal mass, suspected to be an abscess, palpable per rectum. No abnormalities in sexual behavior had been noted. A poor prognosis was given, and the heifers were euthanized and necropsied. In both animals, 1 ovary was replaced by a large, dark red, solid to multiloculated cystic mass containing serosanguineous fluid and red-black, coagulated necrotic material. In heifer 1, a 30-cm-diameter mass was present at the tip of the right uterine horn (Fig. 1). The contralateral ovary was small (3.0 x 1.0 x 0.5 cm) and inactive. In heifer 2, a 26 x 12 x 12-cm mass was present at the tip of the left horn. Her right ovary contained a corpus luteum, and the right uterine horn contained a 15-cm fetus. Multiple (20 to 30) similar but smaller coalescing masses (5-15-cm diameter) were attached to the mesentery and abdominal serosa of both animals. One bronchial lymph node of heifer 2 was approximately 20 times normal size and contained a cystic mass similar to the abdominal masses. No other lesions were noted in either heifer. Selected tissues were fixed in 10% buffered formalin and prepared routinely for histology. The avidin-biotin complex immunoperoxidase method was used to stain deparaffinized tumor sections from heifers 1 and 2 with antibodies to cytokeratin (dilution 1:250) and vimentin (dilution 1:160) following standard techniques and appropriate controls, using an automated immunostainer. Additional tumor sections from heifer 2 were stained with antibodies from a routine diagnostic panel including ovarian carcinoma-associated antigen (CA 125, dilution 1:10), leukocyte common antigen (LCA, dilution 1:200), -smooth muscle actin (1A4, dilution 1:320), desmin (dilution 1:300), HMB45 (melanoma, dilution, 1:400), and S-100 (dilution 1:7,200). Positive controls were employed as follows: colonic adenocarcinoma for