Inductive predictive modelling is a controversial tool in archaeology. Visibility, taphonomy and research history can affect the statistical reliability of an archaeological dataset to be used as a training sample for a predictive model. To overcome these biases, an ethnoarchaeological approach has been proposed. This methodology has been developed and tested on a pastoral context in the Eastern Italian Alps. The present research proposes an application to a different, more composite landscape in the Central Italian Alps, testing the reliability of the model in relation to a heterogeneous and diachronic dataset, collected through extensive fieldwork. The results show that the model has an excellent degree of accuracy in predicting past structures with a similar purpose of use as the training sample. In addition, we show that its discriminative power can be greatly improved by the use of contemporary environmental predictors. However, the use of variables non-quantifiable for the past is an issue for the full applicability of this type of model to archaeological datasets. The results also show that this methodology, regardless of predictive results, can give us a good insight into the relationship between humans and their environment. The field application of the methodology has led us to understand that ethnoarchaeology can already be considered a reliable approach to address various methodological concerns of archaeological predictive modelling, but the primary purpose of such models should be seen more as explanatory rather than predictive.

La Boja is a rock-shelter located in Murcia (Spain) whose c.7 m infilling spans the last 50,000 years of the Pleistocene. Though punctuated by a few episodes of stasis or erosion, sediment accumulation proceeded at a regular rate, while human occupation was intermittent and light. This pattern allowed for the preservation of 31 well-separated Occupation Horizons whose stratigraphic integrity is demonstrated by stone tool refitting, the pristine preservation of hearths and earth ovens, and the age-depth consistency of dating results. Verification of these criteria warranted Bayesian modelling of the sequence, which was carried out under OxCal and delivered a high-resolution chronostratigraphy based on 56 age measurements obtained by OSL and radiocarbon. Our main conclusions are as follows: substantial human use of south-east Spain’s arid interior during MIS 2 and MIS 3 was restricted to interstadials; during stadials, visits were fleeting and left behind an exceedingly scant record (except perhaps in the Solutrean, when harsh conditions prevailed globally but short-lived pulses of increased humidity occurred locally); the Mousterian’s basal metre, featuring Levallois reduction and Soyons points, formed through the 50–55 ka (thousands of years ago) interval; the region’s earliest Upper Palaeolithic is the Evolved Aurignacian, which replaced the Middle Palaeolithic during the 37.1–37.4 ka interval (thereby supporting that, in southern and western Iberia, Neandertals persisted for longer than elsewhere in Eurasia); the transition to the Gravettian occurred within the 34–35 ka interval and there is no evidence that it was demic rather than simply technological; the existence of a distinct Lower Solutrean phase spanning the 25.0–25.5 ka interval is confirmed; in the region, the 20–22 ka slot is occupied by the Solutreo-gravettian, which implies that claims for the French Badegoulian to have extended as far south as the Spanish Levant cannot be supported.

Abstract Mountain environments exhibit a set of features, including elevation, relief, climate, vegetation, and soil, which increase erosion and weathering dynamics, thus resulting in harsh conditions for the integrity of archaeological deposits and remains. On average, the archaeological evidence from upland sites is poorer than that from lowland sites, in both quantity and quality, and is sometimes difficult to detect. This chapter presents the main environmental and geomorphological factors that control surface dynamics in the mountains, summarizes the formation processes at upland sites, and discusses the consequences for archaeological stratifications and remains from a geoarchaeological perspective. This is done with the help of selected case studies of prehistoric and historic sites, mainly from the Alps.

Lithic use-wear analysis, through defining site function and allowing reconstructing of patterns of human occupation, can contribute to our understanding of archaeological palimpsests. The Ciota Ciara cave represents an excellent case study for this methodology. Multidisciplinary research so far conducted on the materials recovered from the atrial sector of the cave distinguishes three archaeological units from a Middle Palaeolithic occupation of the site: stratigraphic units (SUs) 13, 14, and 15. Each unit is interpreted as referring to a period of numerous, superimposed episodes of human occupation, the characteristics of which we try to reconstruct and present in this work through use-wear studies. The functional analysis of lithic industries from the upper units (13 and 14) has already been published previously; here, we report corresponding new data from the lowest level, SU 15. By comparing the use-wear results from the three units and integrating the findings with data from the geoarchaeological, palaeontological, zooarchaeological, and technological studies, we attempt to reconstruct the different phases of human occupation represented in the site through time, contributing to current interpretations regarding settlement dynamics and human behaviour in the Middle Palaeolithic of north-western Italy.

Rock surface luminescence dating has emerged as a powerful geochronological tool; however, the method requires lithologies containing sufficient amounts of quartz or feldspar grains. The application of burial dating to fluvial cobbles, containing only sparse amounts of feldspars, is evaluated in calcarenite cobbles collected in the Mula valley, Spain. Two sampled cobbles demonstrated sufficient luminescence sensitivity. We extracted three or more drill cores from each cobble surface and subsequently measured the sensitivity-corrected luminescence signal with depth using an IRSL/pIRIR protocol to target feldspar grains in calcarenites. We observed significant luminescence-signal depth variations between the cores collected from the same rock surface, suggesting the value of measuring several cores. None of the top surfaces has been significantly bleached; therefore, they convey no relevant age data. Cores from the bottom surfaces show evidence of bleaching in the first 1 to 3 mm, but generally, only the surface slices can be used for dating. One core from each cobble displays a short, non-saturated dose plateau near the surfaces; the modelling demonstrates that the surface slices from these cores contained negligible doses before burial. The age estimate for the bottom surfaces mainly falls into two groups: 24–38 ka and 11–16 ka. The older age group is within the expected age range, previously dated with radiocarbon on another outcrop of the same terrace system. However, the signal-depth profiles indicate that the younger date is more reliable than the older date. Currently, no geomorphological explanation exists to explain the younger-than-expected ages.

The southern Iberian Peninsula is a key area for understanding the timing and patterns of the Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition. Recently, the excavation and study of new sites have provided new insights on this topic. The aim of this paper is to introduce Cueva del Arco, a site complex featuring distinct caves and rock shelters. Cueva del Arco is located at a short distance from the Almadenes gorge (Cieza, Spain) and preserves both Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits and assemblages, as well as rock art. Despite being known since the 1990s for its Palaeolithic rock art, systematic fieldwork was never undertaken at the site until recently. We here report the first results of a research programme that includes the systematic excavation of several cavities belonging to the Cueva del Arco complex, focusing on the location and context of the site, its stratigraphy and chronology, and site formation. Research at the site is still ongoing, but preliminary results suggest that the data from Cueva del Arco will provide new clues to the current debate on the transition from Neanderthals to anatomically modern humans in southern Europe.

The southern Iberian Peninsula is a key area for understanding the timing and patterns of the Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition. Recently, the excavation and study of new sites has provided new insights on this topic. The aim of this paper is to introduce Cueva del Arco, a complex site featuring distinct caves and rock shelters. Cueva del Arco is located at short distance from the Almadenes gorge (Cieza, Spain) and preserves both Middle and Upper Palaeolithic deposits and assemblages, as well as rock art. Despite being known since the 1990s for its Palaeolithic rock art, systematic fieldwork was never undertaken at the site until recently. We here report the first results of a research programme that includes the systematic excavation of several cavities belonging to the Cueva del Arco complex, focusing on the location and context of the site, its stratigraphy and chronology, and site formation. Research at the site is still ongoing, but preliminary results suggest that the data from Cueva del Arco will provide new clues to the current debate on the transition from Neanderthals to anatomically modern humans in Southern Europe.

During the coldest periods of the Pleistocene, parts of the Iberian Peninsula were favorable to the establishment of forest refuges. It is therefore essential to characterize them and study their evolution, in order to gain a better understanding of the territories occupied by prehistoric societies during these same periods. In this article, we propose to revisit the regional study of environmental changes in eastern Spain around the LGM, through the analysis of the isotopic signal (delta C-13) of Solutrean charcoal from Abrigo de la Boja and Cova de les Cendres (ca. 24,500-19,500 cal. BP). The first application of this approach to the Iberian Pleistocene will not only allow us (i) to clarify environmental changes at the two sites and their synchronicity with the North Atlantic influences of this period, but also (ii) to discuss the presence of more or less marked forest refuges in relation to the evolution of regional climatic contrasts.

The effects of the Younger Dryas (YD) fluctuation on Late Pleistocene hunter‐gatherers' settlement and subsistence systems in the southern Alps are poorly known. This is primarily due to the scarcity of archaeological sites dating from the YD, in contrast with the extensive evidence available from the lateglacial interstadial and the early Holocene. Here, we present the initial stratigraphic, chronologic and geoarchaeological data collected from Cornafessa rock shelter, a new site located in the Lessini massif of the Italian Alps, at an elevation of 1240 m. The site was occupied during both the YD and the early Holocene. The YD archaeological deposit is clearly recognisable within the fairly uniform lateglacial and Holocene clastic succession. Geoarchaeological data indicate that the YD deposit corresponds to an occupation surface, which was formed during short visits to the site by late Epigravettian hunter‐gatherer groups, who settled in the sheltered area and performed distinct activities.

Understanding mobility and landscape use is important in reconstructing subsistence behavior, range, and group size, and it may contribute to our understanding of phenomena such as the dynamics of biological and cultural interactions between distinct populations of Upper Pleistocene humans. However, studies using traditional strontium isotope analysis are generally limited to identifying locations of childhood residence or nonlocal individuals and lack the sampling resolution to detect movement over short timescales. Here, using an optimized methodology, we present highly spatially resolved 87 Sr/ 86 Sr measurements made by laser ablation multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry along the growth axis of the enamel of two marine isotope stage 5b, Middle Paleolithic Neanderthal teeth (Gruta da Oliveira), a Tardiglacial, Late Magdalenian human tooth (Galeria da Cisterna), and associated contemporaneous fauna from the Almonda karst system, Torres Novas, Portugal. Strontium isotope mapping of the region shows extreme variation in 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, with values ranging from 0.7080 to 0.7160 over a distance of c. 50 km, allowing short-distance (and arguably short-duration) movement to be detected. We find that the early Middle Paleolithic individuals roamed across a subsistence territory of approximately 600 km 2 , while the Late Magdalenian individual parsimoniously fits a pattern of limited, probably seasonal movement along the right bank of the 20-km-long Almonda River valley, between mouth and spring, exploiting a smaller territory of approximately 300 km 2 . We argue that the differences in territory size are due to an increase in population density during the Late Upper Paleolithic.

Gruta da Oliveira features a c. 13 m-thick infilling that includes a c. 6.5 m-thick archaeological deposit (the "Middle Palaeolithic sequence" complex), which Bayesian modelling of available dating results places in MIS 5a (layers 7-14) and MIS 5b (layers 15-25), c. 71,000-93,000 years ago. The accumulation primarily consists of sediment washed in from the slope through gravitational processes and surface dynamics. The coarse fraction derives from weathering of the cave's limestone bedrock. Tectonic activity and structural instability caused the erosional retreat of the scarp face, explaining the large, roof-collapsed rock masses found through the stratification. The changes in deposition and diagenesis observed across the archaeological sequence are minor and primarily controlled by local factors and the impact of humans and other biological agents. Pulses of stadial accumulation-reflected in the composition of the assemblages of hunted ungulates, mostly open-country and rocky terrain taxa (rhino, horse, ibex)-alternate with interstadial hiatuses-during which carbonate crusts and flowstone formed. Humans were active at the cave throughout, but occupation was intermittent, which allowed for limited usage by carnivores when people visited less frequently. During the accumulation of layers 15-25 (c. 85,000-93,000 years ago), the carnivore guild was dominated by wolf and lion, while brown bear and lynx predominate in layers 7-14 (c. 71,000-78,000 years ago). In the excavated areas, conditions for residential use were optimal during the accumulation of layers 20-22 (c. 90,000-92,000 years ago) and 14 (c. 76,000-78,000 years ago), which yielded dense, hearth-focused scatters of stone tools and burnt bones. The latter are ubiquitous, adding to the growing body of evidence that Middle Palaeolithic Neandertals used fire in regular, consistent manner. The patterns of site usage revealed at Gruta da Oliveira are no different from those observed 50,000 years later in comparable early Upper Palaeolithic and Solutrean cave sites of central Portugal.

Dating the construction of dry-stone walls is challenging since such structures are typically built without any mortar that can be used for dating. Rock surface luminescence dating is a developing dating method that could advance chronological insights from structures constructed using dry-stone techniques. This study explores rock surface luminescence dating by targeting dry-stone walls from two enclosure complexes and a hut located in the pastoral upland landscape in Val di Sole, Italy. Gneissic rocks were collected from the dry-stone walls, including surfaces that were either exposed or covered (buried) during the time of sampling. Their respective exposure and burial histories were investigated by measuring the luminescence intensity in feldspar minerals from polymineral rock slices. From covered rock surfaces from one enclosure complex, we calculated recent burial ages (~200 a) from one rock, and burial of ~500 a (bottom surface) and 3750 & PLUSMN; 660 a (top surface) from a second rock. The top surfaces of two additional rocks date the construction of an adjacent hut to the Early Middle Ages. The luminescence-depth profile from one such rock has a complex exposure and burial history, including events that predate the hut's construction. Fitted exposure ages from a second enclosure complex suggest with significant errors either a recent age (< 10 a) or construction during the 19th century AD. Burial dating using rock surface luminescence dating appears feasible for dry-stone walls provided that the rock surface was sufficiently exposed before being incorporated into the structure; here, the gneissic surfaces were bleached to depths of ~0-2 mm before the last burial. Contrariwise, exposure dating generally underestimates the expected age. The variation in ages observed from our rock surfaces indicates that the degree of preservation of the wall, the position of the rock, erosion, and knowledge regarding the general archaeological setting are essential to interpreting the estimated ages. In this study, rock surface luminescence dating provides new, previously inaccessible chronological data with implications for interpreting human activities in the alpine areas of Val di Sole.

In Portugal, evidence of human occupation dating to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), between 27-19 ka BP, is well-known from caves and rock-shelters, while geoarchaeological data referring to open-air contexts are still scarce. Here we present the preliminary results from the ongoing interdisciplinary investigation at open-air site Portela 2 (Maceira, Leiria, Central Portugal), which is situated in an elongated and semi-closed topographic depression with fluviokarst characteristics, opened in Middle Jurassic carbonate bedrock. A rescue archaeology intervention in 2009 led to the discovery of the site where, among eight hundred lithic artefacts, fifteen Vale Comprido points were recovered, suggesting a Proto-Solutrean occupation of the area. These finds, poorly known in south-western Europe, prompted new systematic stratigraphic excavations in 2021, in the framework of the PALEORESCUE project (PTDC/HAR-ARQ/30779/2017). In this study, we follow a broad geoarchaeological approach to address site stratigraphy and formation processes reconstruction, including geomorphological, sedimentological, soil micromorphological and geochronological analyses. Some manual boreholes were performed to verify the thickness of the local sedimentary succession around the site, and thus delimit the extension of the archaeological deposit. The sedimentary succession exposed after the archaeological excavations at the Portela 2 site, together with the remains of the post-Jurassic siliciclastic covers that discontinuously overlay the carbonate bedrock around the depression, were sampled to carry out sedimentological routine analyses. In addition, undisturbed samples from the Portela 2 succession were cut into thin sections and used for microstratigraphic observations under the petrographic microscope. Bulk sediments were dry-sieved and observed under a stereomicroscope to evaluate grain composition and morphology. Grain-size data were obtained through sieving at ½ φ intervals. On average, one hundred quartz grains per sample were randomly selected from the 1.0-0.5 φ fraction, recording surface aspect (frosted or bright) and roundness degree; heavy mineral discrimination in 3-4 φ fraction was performed as well, using Frantz magnetic separator and optical inspection (also estimated by X-ray diffraction). Luminescence dating and laser diffraction particle-size analysis of the fraction smaller than -1 φ are in progress. The preliminary results indicate sedimentological, mineralogical, and petrographic affinities between the siliciclastic infillings at the Portela 2 archaeological site and the Cretaceous and Pliocene covers. Overall, the studied sedimentary succession consists of remobilized Cretaceous or Pliocene deposits, sometimes mixed between them, and locally affected by soil formation processes during the Holocene. At the moment, direct aeolian inputs cannot be excluded either. Furthering this investigation will provide an absolute chronology for the Portela 2 deposit and a better understanding of the regional paleoenvironmental context, resulting in new insights into the studies of the relationships between human occupations and natural dynamics at the turn of the LGM in the western Iberian Peninsula.

The geomorphological and sedimentary dynamics related to cold-climate conditions that occurred during Last Glacial Period constitute one of the most relevant factors in the recent relief evolution in mainland Portugal. Among them, low-altitude cold non-glacial processes (periglacial) are well-known north of Lisbon, from coastal areas to the inland regions of Hercynian Massif, through the carbonate massifs of central Portugal. However, a comprehensive lithostratigraphic and chronological characterization of relict periglacial stratified slope deposits, on different bedrocks (carbonate, schistose, and granitic), is still largely missing. This study focuses on a ~3-m-thick deposit excavated at the Fariseu 9 archaeological site, located on the left-bank of the Côa River in the Iberian plateau (“Meseta” - northeast Portugal) and featuring Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic remains. Standard facies and fabric analysis, coupled by soil-micromorphological and petrographic observations, were performed. Luminescence dating and laser diffraction particle-size analysis of the <2 mm fraction are in progress. Nonetheless, based on the stratigraphic correlations with three nearby sedimentary successions (G-81/82, G-92/93, and Rock Art Panel 1 profiles), dates by thermoluminescence, luminescence and radiocarbon, a chronology from the Lateglacial to the Younger Dryas for the studied deposit can be assumed. The sedimentary dynamics are mainly related to mass wasting on a schistose (phyllite) bedrock, associated with frost-shattering. In the field, alternating openwork (or clast-supported) layers of large angular clasts, locally imbricated and organized into planar sedimentary structures, and intercalated beds with variable percentages of sand and silt, with limited evidence of weathering, are observed. Clast fabric is strongly slope-oriented both in the fine-grained and in the open-work stony layers, although the imbrication may show varying polarity and inclination among different beds. Some microfeatures, such as a concentric or circular pattern of quartz grains and rock fragments, silt cappings developed onto rock fragments, and reworked clay coatings, may be considered indicators of debris-flow mechanisms combined with discontinuous frost action (freeze-thaw cycles). In the intercalated fine-grained beds, instead, the fabric characteristics and the presence of preferred oblique orientation of elongated grains point to water runoff and solifluction, which may be indicative of still cold and relatively more humid conditions. In addition, a well-defined erosive unconformity between the Pleistocene and Holocene records is observed in one of the thin sections. The occurrence of these relict slope landforms and deposits at low-altitudes (125-130 m), and the evidence of associated periglacial dynamics with three main sedimentary mechanisms that dominate the emplacement of the studied sediments (debris-flow, runoff, and solifluction), are used to identify different cold stages at a local scale. Based on these preliminary data, we suggest that a high frequency of freeze-thaw cycles would have occurred during these stages, along with a seasonal renewal of a thin snow cover, whereas permafrost was absent. The combination of intersecting geomorphological, sedimentological, petrographic, and geochronological analyses of relict periglacial stratified slope deposits in the Côa Valley region, therefore, led to the reconstitution of late Pleistocene and early Holocene environmental changes for this area, allowing to discuss the relative importance of the forcing factors responsible for such land evolution.

Here, we investigate the application of rock surface IRSL dating to chronology restrain archaeological structures related to upland pastoralism. We applied the method to cobbles collected from archaeological units in an excavation of a dry-stone structure in Val di Sole in the Italian Alps. At this site, archaeological finds and previous radiocarbon analyses have dated an initial human occupation of the site to the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2200-1600 BC), and a possible second occupation to the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 1600-1350 BC). These archaeological units have later been buried by colluvial sediments. Theoretically, the luminescence-depth profiles from rock surfaces from inside such structures could record the exposure and burial of these archaeological units. We collected buried gneiss cobbles from these archaeological units and measured rock slices and chips from 1 to 4 cm long cores with a low-temperature pIR-IRSL protocol to investigate the signal resetting in these cobbles. Only the IRSL50 signal was deemed appropriate for dating. Measured luminescence-depth profiles demonstrate varying levels of signal resetting before burial. Dating of two paragneiss cobbles from the lower unit yielded corrected burial ages of similar to 1450-700 BC and similar to 19 ka. The older date is clearly not associated with human occupation; the younger date slightly underestimates the Early Bronze Age occupation, which was confirmed by new radiocarbon dating of charcoal (1731-1452 and 2124-1773 cal. BC). The burial of the upper archaeological unit was dated to similar to AD 1000, based on ages derived from the bottom surface of an orthogneiss cobble and the top surface of a paragneiss cobble. This is slightly younger than two new radiocarbon ages (426-596 and 537-654 cal. AD) from charcoal fragments sampled from the same unit. This new chronological data show longer exposure of the upper archaeological unit than was previously known. Furthermore, the paragneiss cobble from the upper unit has been exposed to sufficient heat to reset the IRSL50 and pIR-IRSL290 signals throughout the cobble; an event which can be dated to similar to AD 100-1500 BC. Comparisons between fading-corrected IRSL50 ages and pIR-IRSL290 ages from the heated cobble are in agreement, which suggests that the conventional g-value approach accurately corrects for signal loss during burial. Overall, our research suggests that rock surface IRSL dating can provide complementary chronological data for archaeological settings.

Based on previous radiocarbon and U-series (Diffusion/Adsorption) dating of bone samples, the Middle Palaeolithic has been thought to persist at Gruta da Oliveira until-37 thousand years (ka) ago. New U series ages for stratigraphically constraining speleothems, coupled with new luminescence ages for sediment infill, show that the site's-6 m-thick archaeological stratigraphy dates entirely within a < 30 ka interval spanning substages 5a-5b of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5. Significant technological change is observed across the sequence, akin to that seen in the Upper Palaeolithic over similar timescales. Flake cleavers and bifaces, normatively definitional of the Vasconian facies, are restricted to a short interval correlated with Greenland Stadial (GS) 22, 85.1-87.6 ka ago. In cave and rock-shelter sites of southern and western Iberia, intact archaeological deposits securely dated to the-37-42 ka interval remain elusive. Geological dynamics (e.g., erosion, sedimentation hiatuses, palimpsest formation) and human adaptive responses to climate-driven environmental change (e.g., abandonment of now forest-covered low-and mid-altitude karst areas, concentration of settlement in alluvial plains and coastal settings) are possible explanations for this pattern. (c) 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Gruta do Caldeirão features a c . 6 m-thick archaeological stratification capped by Holocene layers ABC-D and Ea, which overlie layer Eb, a deposit of Magdalenian age that underwent significant disturbance, intrusion, and component mixing caused by funerary use of the cave during the Early Neolithic. Here, we provide an updated overview of the stratigraphy and archaeological content of the underlying Pleistocene succession, whose chronology we refine using radiocarbon and single-grain optically stimulated luminescence dating. We find a high degree of stratigraphic integrity. Dating anomalies exist in association with the succession’s two major discontinuities: between layer Eb and Upper Solutrean layer Fa, and between Early Upper Palaeolithic layer K and Middle Palaeolithic layer L. Mostly, the anomalies consist of older-than-expected radiocarbon ages and can be explained by bioturbation and palimpsest-forming sedimentation hiatuses. Combined with palaeoenvironmental inferences derived from magnetic susceptibility analyses, the dating shows that sedimentation rates varied in tandem with the oscillations in global climate revealed by the Greenland oxygen isotope record. A steep increase in sedimentation rate is observed through the Last Glacial Maximum, resulting in a c . 1.5 m-thick accumulation containing conspicuous remains of occupation by people of the Solutrean technocomplex, whose traditional subdivision is corroborated: the index fossils appear in the expected stratigraphic order; the diagnostics of the Protosolutrean and the Lower Solutrean predate 24,000 years ago; and the constraints on the Upper Solutrean place it after Greenland Interstadial 2.2. (23,220–23,340 years ago). Human usage of the site during the Early Upper and the Middle Palaeolithic is episodic and low-intensity: stone tools are few, and the faunal remains relate to carnivore activity. The Middle Palaeolithic is found to persist beyond 39,000 years ago, at least three millennia longer than in the Franco-Cantabrian region. This conclusion is upheld by Bayesian modelling and stands even if the radiocarbon ages for the Middle Palaeolithic levels are removed from consideration (on account of observed inversions and the method’s potential for underestimation when used close to its limit of applicability). A number of localities in Spain and Portugal reveal a similar persistence pattern. The key evidence comes from high-resolution fluviatile contexts spared by the site formation issues that our study of Caldeirão brings to light—palimpsest formation, post-depositional disturbance, and erosion. These processes. are ubiquitous in the cave and rock-shelter sites of Iberia, reflecting the impact on karst archives of the variation in climate and environments that occurred through the Upper Pleistocene, and especially at two key points in time: between 37,000 and 42,000 years ago, and after the Last Glacial Maximum. Such empirical difficulties go a long way towards explaining the controversies surrounding the associated cultural transitions: from the Middle to the Upper Palaeolithic, and from the Solutrean to the Magdalenian. Alongside potential dating error caused by incomplete decontamination, proper consideration of sample association issues is required if we are ever to fully understand what happened with the human settlement of Iberia during these critical intervals, and especially so with regards to the fate of Iberia’s last Neandertal populations.

We present the study of a composite, yet continuous sedimentary succession covering the time interval spanning 2.6–0.36 Ma in the intramontane basin of Anagni (central Italy) through a dedicated borecore, field surveys, and the review of previous data at the three palaeontological and archaeological sites of Colle Marino, Coste San Giacomo and Fontana Ranuccio. By combining the magneto- and chronostratigraphic data with sedimentologic and biostratigraphic analysis, we describe the palaeogeographic and tectonic evolution of this region during this entire interval. In this time frame, starting from 0.8 Ma, the progressive shallowing and temporary emersion of the large lacustrine basins and alluvial plains created favorable conditions for early hominin occupation of the area, as attested by abundant tool industry occurrences and fossils. This study provides new constraints to better interpret the hominin migratory dynamics and the factors that influenced the location and spatial distribution during the early occupation of this region.