[Objective]To investigate the effects of two microbial fertilizers on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Camellia oleifera seedlings,and to provide some practical references and theoretical support for the nutrient management of Camellia oleifera.[Method]The growth indexes,gas exchange parameters,chlorophyll fluorescence parameters and antioxidant enzyme activities of Camellia oleifera seedlings were measured after applying two kinds of microbial fertilizers,and combined with the principal component and subordinate function analysis to comprehensively evaluate the effects of different treatments and screen the optimal fertilizers and application rates.[Result]The application of microbial fertilizer significantly promoted the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of Camellia oleifera.Compared with the control group(CK),A4 and L2 treatments increased plant height by 71.74％and 67.94％,respectively;A2 and L2 treatments increased ground diameter by 60.00％and 45.40％,respectively.Chlorophyll and carotenoid contents were significantly increased by A3 and L3 treatments,where the increase in chlorophyll a,chlorophyll b,total chlorophyll and carotenoids were 147.64％,90.62％,122.08％,213.43％and 130.27％,121.03％,126.85％and 280.07％,respectively.The A2 treatment increased the net photosynthetic rate(Pn)compared to the 93.03％and 66.66％in the control(CK)and nitrogen fertilizer treatment(N),respectively.qP and ETR of A2-treated leaves were 31.03％and 35.95％higher than that of CK,and 46.15％and 33.75％higher than that of N group,respectively.In addition,superoxide dismutase(SOD)activities of A4 and L2 treatments were significantly higher than CK and N by 24.69％,28.57％and 51.82％,56.54％,respectively,while peroxidase(POD)and catalase(CAT)activities were enhanced.The comprehensive evaluation of principal component analysis and affiliation function indicated that the growth,photosynthetic characteristics and antioxidant enzyme activities of Camellia oleifera performed best under A2 treatment.[Conclusion]The microbial fertilizer and Randidobond significantly promoted the growth of Camellia oleifera seedlings,and enhanced the antioxidant enzyme activities by increasing the chlorophyll content,gas exchange parameters,chlorophyll fluorescence parameters of the leaves,effectively enhanced the photosynthesis of the plants,and provided a strong support for the high-efficiency cultivation of Camellia oleifera.

Investigating genetic diversity is a prerequisite for the management and utilization of germplasm resources. This study assessed the genetic diversity and population structure of 103 olive (Olea europaea) varieties in the Liangshan region, Sichuan Province, China, based on fruit phenotypic traits and 48 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. There were high positive correlations between various fruit phenotypic indicators, while a few indicators showed negative correlations (e.g., stone longitudinal diameter was significantly negatively correlated with the fruit shape index and kernel shape index). Fresh fruit oil content was significantly negatively correlated with fruit longitudinal diameter, stone transverse diameter, stone longitudinal diameter, and fruit volume. The number of allelic variations at SSR loci in the population ranged from 2 to 22, with an average of 10.7. The mean Shannon’s information index (I), observed heterozygosity (Ho), and expected heterozygosity (He) of the 103 varieties were 1.529, 0.54, and 0.685, respectively, indicating relatively high genetic diversity between these olive varieties. Structure analysis, PCA, and PCoA consistently classified the varieties into two ancestral populations, with mean fixation index (FST) = 0.052 and gene flow (Nm) = 4.544, suggesting moderate genetic differentiation and extensive gene flow between the populations. Based on phenotypic clustering and phylogenetic analysis, eight varieties exhibiting synonymy or homonymy were successfully identified. Furthermore, molecular fingerprint profiles were established using seven pairs of SSR primers, which could effectively identify all varieties. This study provides a valuable reference for the management and breeding of olive germplasm resources in the Liangshan region.

Lethariella cladonioides (Nyl.) Krog (EE) proved to be a prolific source of polyphenols. UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS was used to identify 38 polyphenolic compounds in L. cladonioides and determined the fragmentation pathways of its unique compounds (Vermicularin). The chosen polyphenols were utilized in the COSMO-RS method to tailor the most appropriate deep eutectic solvent (DES) for L. cladonioides. The Materials Studio program was used to construct virtual cluster molecules from 34 types of DESs and the 8 chosen polyphenols. The 17 DESs were configured and used to extract the polyphenols. The results indicated that choline chloride-ethanol amine exhibited outstanding dissolution effects. Furthermore, ultrasound-assisted DES extraction process parameters were optimized using response surface methodology, including ultrasound time, ultrasound power, and temperature and the optimization significantly increased the total phenol content to 41.17 ± 0.24 mg GAE/g. In the study, 38 polyphenol components in L. cladonioides were analyzed by mass spectrometry and ChCl-Eth was successfully screened out as the optimal extraction solvent based on the modeling, providing new ideas for the application of molecular simulation in the field of polyphenol extraction.

Camellia oleifera leaves, a by-product of the pruning process in cultivation, are rich in various bioactive components. Extracting active ingredients efficiently and sustainably from by-products has garnered widespread attention in the oilseed industry. This study utilized 11 combinations of deep eutectic solvents (DESs) to extract polysaccharides from C. oleifera leaves (CLPs). Betaine - Lactic acid (Bet-LA) deep eutectic solvent achieved the highest polysaccharide extraction yield, reaching 19.01 % under optimal conditions, a 2.5-fold increase compared to conventional hot water extraction. The physicochemical composition and preliminary structural features of CLPs were also characterized. The polysaccharide extracted using DES (CLPD) exhibited a similar monosaccharide profile and chemical composition to that extracted with hot water (CLPW). Still, it possessed a significantly lower molecular weight (96.56 kDa compared to 775.76 kDa) and a smaller particle size. Moreover, CLPs demonstrated better thermal stability, emulsifying stability, and in vitro antioxidant activities, achieving a DPPH radical scavenging rate of 91.7 % at 0.5 mg/mL. These findings highlight the potential of DES-extracted CLPs as natural antioxidants or functional emulsifiers for use in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, providing a sustainable and efficient strategy for the green exploitation and utilization of C. oleifera by-products.

Camellia oleifera Abel. is a unique and important edible oil crop in China. The quality and high yield of C. oleifera are closely related to cultivation, management and back-end processing and storage. However, studies on the growth and development, drying treatment and back-end storage of C. oleifera are not comprehensive enough. Therefore, the phenotypic characteristics of C.oleifera fruits during growth and ripening were studied and the effects of four different drying methods including room temperature drying (SW), hot air drying (RF, 65 degrees C), vacuum drying (ZG, 50 degrees C, 0.6 Mpa) and freeze drying (LD) on the oil content of C.oleifera seeds (COS) were discussed. At the same time, the changes of the main components and nutrients of C.oleifera kernel oil (COKO) under room temperature storage (SG) and 4 degrees C frozen storage (LC) were also investigated. The results of the study showed that C. oleifera cultivar 'Changlin40' exhibited an S-shaped curve in fruit growth and development. In addition, the oil content initially increased and then remained stable, and the soluble protein and starch contents increased with increasing fruit maturity, but the soluble sugar content increased rapidly at the early stage of fruit development and gradually decreased at the later stage. The maximum content of squalene in the oil obtained by vacuum drying was 80.578 mu g/g. The oil content of COS treated by RF was 55.31%, significantly higher than the other treatments. In addition, it was also found that with increasing duration of SG, the acid and peroxide values of COKO increased significantly and the nutrients such as tocopherol, squalene and sterol decreased significantly, which was exactly the opposite of LC, indicating that LC could reduce the loss of nutrients during storage. This study can provide a theoretical basis for field management, screening of drying methods and subsequent storage of C. oleifera.

Background Olive (Olea europaea L.) oil is well-known commercial product worldwide for its nutritional and therapeutic properties. The molecular mechanisms underlying lipid variations in different olive cultivars remain unclear. Methods To investigate the molecular mechanism involved in lipid synthesis and metabolism, untargeted metabolome and RNA-Seq analyses were performed based on two varieties of olive fruits, i.e., Kalinjot (JZ) with low oil content and Coratina (KLD) with high oil content. Results Totally, 38 lipid compounds of 375 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) were identified in JZ and KLD fruits, with 24 metabolites showing higher contents in KLD than those in JZ. Integrated transcriptome and metabolome analyses identified 48 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with six lipid DAMs from JZ and KLD fruits. The contents of decanoic acid, sphinganine, and leukotriene D4 in KLD fruits were 2.33, 1.91, and 1.53 times greater than that of JZ fruits, respectively. In particular, two BCCP, one ACC, seven KAR, one EAR, one FATA and one SPT genes were observed involving to the content and quality of lipids in olive fruits. These DEGs were associated with the pathways of fatty acid biosynthesis, arachidonic acid metabolism, and limonene degradation. This study provides a strong theoretical and experimental foundation for further revealing the molecular mechanisms regulating lipid synthesis and metabolism in different olive cultivars.

Investigating the population structure and demographic history is crucial for elucidating the evolutionary imprints of a species and laying a foundation for effective utilization of its germplasm. Camellia oleifera Abel., a traditional woody oil-producing species, is widely distributed in south of the Yangtze River in China. However, the phylogeography and genetic diversity of wild population remain poorly understood. Data for 20 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and two chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) fragments was generated to assess the genetic variation and differentiation across 33 natural populations. The integrated Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) and ecological niche modeling (ENM) were utilized to analyze the demographic and evolutionary history. The analysis revealed high genetic diversity at the species level and significant genetic variation within populations for both SSR and cpDNA datasets. The genetic evidence based on cpDNA indicated no noteworthy genetic divergence and phylogeographical structure. Haplotype phylogenetic analyses suggest that the temporal pattern of species diversification is likely associated with the abrupt uplift of Hengduan Mountains and adjacent regions (HMR) during the late Miocene to late Pliocene. In contrast, the genetic structure in SSR data revealed a discernible geographic pattern: 33 populations were divided into two lineage regions, namely HMR and Central-East China. The identification of two potential refugia for C. oleifera during the LGM, namely the HMR and southeastern China, was achieved through a comprehensive analysis combining ENM and population structure analysis. The presence of distinct genetic patterns observed in cpDNA and SSR makers may account for the divergent hereditary characteristics between the nuclear and chloroplast genomes, resulting in disparate phylogeographic patterns. The Nanling mountain range was regarded as a dispersal conduit that facilitated effective gene flow between the two refugia, leading to the extensive distribution and stable evolutionary trajectory of C. oleifera. These methods and findings can provide a reference for uncovering the demographic history of perennial woody oil crops and facilitate the utilization of wild C. oleifera genetic resources for the genetic breeding.

Ginger is widely cultivated for its medicinal and culinary benefits and for its medicinal properties, but its leaves are often discarded as waste. These leaves contain valuable polysaccharides that have been largely overlooked. In this study, we successfully isolated a pectin polysaccharide, designated GLP1, from ginger leaves. Structural analysis of GLP1 revealed a complex composition comprising four distinct chains linked to -2,4)-alpha-L-Rhap(1-4)-alpha-D-GalpA-(1-, including J3-D-Galp-(1-4)-J3-D-Galp-(1-, alpha-L-Araf-(1-5)-alpha-L-Araf-(1-, J3-D-Galp(1-4,6)-J3-D-Galp-(1- with alpha-L-Araf-(1-5)-alpha-L-Araf-(1- linked, and J3-D-Xylp-(1-2,3,4)-J3-D-Xylp-(1- with J3-D-Galp-(1- or alpha-L-Araf-(1-linked. Additionally, GLP1 exhibited strong antioxidant activity in vitro and could reduce the oxidative damage to Hep G2 cells under H2O2. Moreover, GLP1 extended both maximum lifespan and median survival of Alzheimer's disease model Caenorhabditis elegans BR5270 under 25 degrees C. it also increased their movement distance by 53.05% at 10 min and 16.25% at 20 min. Furthermore, GLP1 alleviated neurological damage in BR5270, increasing their chemotaxis index towards sodium chloride by 63.64%. These findings provided a new potential for exploiting the resource of ginger leaves and facilitated the development of novel bioactive compounds for therapeutic applications.

As a unique woody oil crop in China, Camellia oleifera Abel. germplasm resources show significant genetic diversity in Ya'an City. This study measured 60 phenotypic traits (32 quantitative, 28 qualitative) of 302 accessions to analyze phenotypic variation, establish a classification system, and screen high-yield, high-oil germplasms. The phenotypic diversity index for fruit (H' = 1.36-1.44) was significantly higher than for leaf (H' = 1.31) and flower (H' < 1), indicating genetic diversity concentrated in reproductive traits, suggesting potential genetic variability in these traits. Fruit quantitative traits (e.g., single fruit weight CV = 35.37%, fresh seed weight CV = 38.93%) showed high genetic dispersion. Principal component analysis confirmed the fruit factor and economic factor as main phenotypic differentiation drivers. Quantitative traits were classified morphologically, and correlation analysis integrated them into 13 key indicators classified using LSD and range methods. Finally, TOPSIS evaluation selected 10 excellent germplasms like TQ122 and TQ49, with fruit weight, fresh seed yield, and kernel oil content significantly exceeding the population average. This study provides data for C. oleifera DUS test guidelines and proposes a multi-trait breeding strategy, supporting high-yield variety selection and germplasm resource protection.

Exogenous biological stimulants (EBS) have made some progress in alleviating non-biological stress. However, the specific mechanism of EBS on Camellia oleifera seedlings under alkaline stress (AS) remains unclear. This study aims to explore the effect of EBS on the physiological responses of C. oleifera seedlings under AS and reveal its possible mechanism of action. In the AS treatment group, the photosynthetic pigments, photosynthetic parameters and fluorescence parameters of C. oleifera seedlings decreased significantly. It is also worth noting that the MT3 group increased the soluble sugar and soluble protein contents of C. oleifera seedlings, while reducing the contents of malondialdehyde, proline and electrical conductivity. Through correlation analysis, principal component analysis and comprehensive evaluation of membership functions, it was concluded that the comprehensive score of the CK group was the highest, followed by the MT3 group, and the score of the AS treatment group was the lowest. Based on this, we conducted transcriptomic analysis on these 3 groups to further explore their differences. GO enrichment analysis was performed on DEGs (174) at the intersection of the CK-vsAS and AS-vs-MT3 treatment groups. According to the results of the significant enrichment bubble plot, it can be known that the cross DEGs in the CK-vs-AS and AS-vs-MT3 comparison groups was significantly enriched in the two functional items of tetrapyrrole binding and heme binding. Meanwhile, KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of DEGs revealed enrichment in the sesquiterpenoids and triterpenoid biosynthesis, glutathione metabolism, isoflavone biosynthesis, phenylpropene biosynthesis, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites (BSM) pathways. Notably, the DEGs such as PRS2, SALR and the CYP family in the BSM pathway were significantly downregulated in the MT3 group. This study enhances our understanding of the role of EBS in AS by revealing how C. oleifera increases resistance through EBS spraying in the presence of AS.

Polysaccharides from Camellia oleifera seed cake are acknowledged as magnificent bioactivities, but their effects on gut microbiota are poorly studied. This investigation clarified the essential characteristics and bioactivities of four sorts of polysaccharides derived from C. oleifera seed cake (CCPs) and systematically investigated their digestive stability, microbial modulatory effects, and metabolic profiles under in vitro gastrointestinal and fermentation conditions. The findings provide an integrated understanding of how extraction methods influence polysaccharide functionality. The findings revealed that the fundamental traits and bioactivities of D-CCP would be impacted by the methods of extraction. Notably, D-CCP exhibited the highest antioxidant potential. Following in vitro digestion, both the physico-chemical characteristics and bioactivities of D-CCP remained largely consistent; however, significant alterations were noted after fermentation, affecting, reducing sugars, chemical composition, apparent viscosity, and FT-IR spectra. D-CCP played a beneficial role in regulating constitution of gut microorganisms by increasing the abundance of advantageous microorganisms (Bacteroides, Parabacteroides and Bifidobacterium) while reducing detrimental ones (Morganella and Clostridium), thereupon then promoting the manufacture of short-chain fatty acids. This result offers valuable insights into the characteristics of D-CCP related to both digestive processes and microbial fermentation, highlighting its promise as a prebiotic source that may enhance human intestinal health.

Heavy metal exposure triggers severe oxidative stress, physiological impairment, and cellular damage in biological systems. Crop-derived polysaccharides demonstrate significant potential in mitigating heavy metal toxicity through metal chelation and antioxidant defense enhancement. In this study, we systematically evaluated the protective effects of polysaccharides extracted from Camellia oleifera leaves (CLPs) against heavy metalinduced toxicity in Caenorhabditis elegans. Our findings demonstrate that CLPs markedly enhanced the survival rate of C. elegans by 26.24-51.65 % under acute exposure to heavy metals (Al, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni, Pb), concurrently reducing oxidative damage, improving lipid metabolism, and restoring of key physiological functions. Gene expression analyses further revealed the up-regulation of core stress-responsive transcription factors, as well as genes associated with metal detoxification (e.g., metallothioneins) and intestinal microvilli integrity. These results collectively demonstrate that CLPs, especially those extracted using natural deep eutectic solvents, alleviate the toxicity of heavy metals by chelating and activating DAF-16/SKN-1 mediated antioxidant defenses. This represents a promising, natural, and sustainable strategy for heavy metal detoxification, suggesting that CLPs' potential for environmental remediation applications.

Exogenous biostimulants (EB) are crucial for reducing abiotic stress in plants. It is currently unclear how EB such as melatonin (MT), betaine (BA), and salicylic acid (SA) regulate the stress in Camellia oleifera seedlings under alkali stress (XP). This study demonstrates the moderating effect of SA (0.5, 1, and 2 mmol/L), BA (0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 g/L), and MT (200, 400, and 800 μmol/L) on the relative chlorophyll content, photosynthetic parameters, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, osmoregulatory substances, and antioxidant enzymes in C. oleifera seedlings under XP. The results showed that spraying different types and different concentrations of EB under alkali stress had a certain alleviating effect on the phenotype of C. oleifera seedlings. Whether 7 or 15 days after the application of EB, the relative chlorophyll content (SPAD) and the degree of yellowish-green in the control group were different from those in the other 10 treatment groups, but the difference in brightness was not significant. As far as the malondialdehyde (MDA) content is concerned, the SA2, BA3, MT2, and MT3 treatment groups can significantly reduce the MDA content on the 7th day of EB application. The electrolytic leakage (EL) is also significantly reduced by MT2 and MT3. It was found that treatment groups SA3 and MT2 could improve the photosynthetic parameters of C. oleifera seedlings to different degrees on the 7th day of EB application. On the 15th day of EB application, treatment groups SA1, SA3, BA1, and BA2 all increased the photosynthetic rate of C. oleifera compared to the XP treatment group, but other treatments did not increase. At the same time, the results showed that the fluorescence parameters of the seedlings showed different degrees of improvement under different EB spraying conditions. Under alkali stress, soluble proteins (SP) and soluble sugars (SS) increased in the XP group, but it was found that the SA3, BA3, and MT2 treatment groups could reduce the content of osmoregulatory substances both on the 7th and 15th days of EB application. In terms of proline (Pro) content, BA1, BA2, and MT2 treatment groups could reduce Pro content on the 7th and 15th days of EB spraying, respectively. As for the antioxidant enzymes, the SA2, BA3, MT2, and MT3 treatment groups could basically increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes and further reduce oxidative damage on the 7th day of application of EB. According to the comprehensive results of the membership function, whether on the 7th or 15th day of EB spraying, the MT2 treatment group has the best overall mitigation effect of the three EB applications, ranking in the top three. This study will help to improve the scientific understanding of C. oleifera’s alkali resistance and interaction with EB while filling the knowledge gap on the physiological response to oleofylline stress.

Camellia oleifera leaves were byproduct of the C. oleifera industry which was rich in polysaccharides. Deep eutectic solvent-dual enzyme system (DES-dEAE) was established to achieve the simultaneous hydrolysis reaction of dual enzymes and DES extraction. Currently, there was a lack of research methods that simultaneously deal with the relationship between DES and enzymes and the effect of DES on the polysaccharide extraction rate. In the study, artificial neural network (ANN) and conductor-like screening model for real solvents (COSMO-RS) were used to screen the most suitable DES by predicting the pH and activity coefficient of DESs. Choline chloride and sorbitol constituted the best DES and were used to optimize the process conditions of DES-dEAE by response surface method (RSM). The polysaccharide yield was verified to be 21.46 mg/g with the optimal process conditions: liquid-solid ratio of 33:1, enzyme ratio of 3:1, extraction time of 15 min and water content of 40 %. The C. oleifera polysaccharides obtained by water, DES, and DES-dEAE extractions were observed by scanning electron microscopy and cell wall damage effect of DES-dEAE was confirmed microscopically. The study optimized the complex polysaccharide extraction system using bioinformatics methods, contributing new ideas to the development of simulated extraction.

Camellia oleifera Abel shell is an abundant lignocellulosic byproduct of the Chinese woody oil industry, which is currently underutilized. To achieve its high-value utilization, this study developed an innovative cascade process integrating ultrasound-assisted extraction and macroporous resin purification for the efficient preparation of purified polyphenols from the shell (P-CPCS). The major constituents were identified by quadrupole/Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry (HPLC-Q-Exactive-MS: Biotech Pack Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) analysis. The optimized process significantly enhanced the polyphenol yield (40.05 ± 0.58 mg GAE/g dw) and purity (57.72%), surpassing conventional methods. P-CPCS exhibited exceptional multifunctional bioactivities, including potent antioxidant capacity (with low IC50 values against DPPH, ABTS+·, and ·OH radicals), effective tyrosinase inhibition (whitening effect), and significant bacteriostatic effects against various pathogens. Furthermore, P-CPCS notably suppressed the LPS-induced inflammatory response in RAW264.7 macrophages by reducing NO overproduction. This work highlights a novel and efficient strategy for upcycling agricultural waste into a high-performance natural antioxidant, positioning P-CPCS as a promising ingredient for applications in functional foods, cosmetics, and biomaterial stabilization.

Polysaccharides, which is deemed safe and active, are widely used in medicine and food industries. Their antioxidant properties could be altered by chemically modifying their hydroxy groups. However, these modifications were inherently non-specific, leaving the contribution of hydroxy groups to the antioxidant activity of polysaccharides largely unexplored. We isolated and purified a ginger leaf polysaccharide (GLP1) and modified it. Sulfation resulted in numerous protrusions within its microstructure, while carboxymethylation increased the size of lamellar structures with protrusions, and hydroxyethylation diminished pore formation. Sulfation enhanced DPPH radical scavenging activity and reducing power but decreased hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. Carboxymethylation improved hydroxyl radical scavenging activity and reducing power but reduced DPPH radical scavenging activity. Hydroxyethylation resulted in a decrease in all measured antioxidant activities, while enhancing GLP1’s protection against H2O2-induced cellular damage. Oxidation of primary hydroxy groups decreased pore formation, while secondary hydroxy group oxidation increased lamellar. The oxidation of hydroxy groups enhanced GLP1’s antioxidant activity in vitro, with primary hydroxy group oxidation providing superior protection against cellular oxidative damage. Our findings may facilitate the development of highly effective polysaccharide products through targeted modifications of specific groups.

Penthorum chinense Pursh is a traditional Miao medicine, mainly used in the treatment of liver diseases. In this study, an acidic heteropolysaccharide PCPP was isolated from P. chinense with an average molecular weight of 14.96 kDa. PCPP contained arabinogalactan and homogalacturonan segments, which is formed by 4-Gal p -(1 -* 5)-Ara f -1 and 3,6-Gal p -(1 -* 6)-Gal p -1,3 glycosidic linkage. A variety of side chains, including t-Glc p -(1 -* 4)Glc p- (1 -* 4)-Glc p A - 1, t-Xyl p -(1-*, and 2-Man p -(1 -* 4)-Gal p A-1,3 linked to the O -3 and O -6 of 3,6-Gal p . The antioxidant activity measurement in three models demonstrated that PCPP exhibited ROS scavenging capacity, antioxidant ability in the cellular model, enhancement of oxidative stress resistance, and healthspan-promoting effect in the worm model. These results provided the theoretical fundament of PCPP as a potential natural antioxidant.

Heat pretreatment plays a crucial role in affecting the quality, colour and aroma of camellia oil during the extraction process. This study aimed to investigate the effects of steaming, stir-frying, roasting, microwave and infrared treatment on the flavour and physicochemical quality of camellia seeds. The results indicated that, compared with unpretreated samples, the heat-pretreated ones exhibited increased oil content and browning degree, imparting a caramel colour with toasty and nutty flavours. 137 VOCs, including 23 characteristic aroma compounds, were detected by HS-SPME/GC-O-MS analysis. 17 different VOCs were identified by OPLS-DA and 12 key aroma compounds (KACs) were determined by ROAV. Moreover, 6 characteristic flavour substances were obtained through comprehensive analysis. The relationship between physicochemical properties and sensory attributes was elucidated using the Mantel test. This study provided scientific insights into the formation mechanism of camellia seeds flavour and supported further development of processing strategies to enhance camellia seeds flavour.