This study investigates the application of microalgal-based carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles to enhance anaerobic digestion performance. The nanoparticles were synthesized via hydrothermal carbonization using iron nitrate and algal biomass grown on the liquid fraction of municipal digestate. Their physicochemical properties were characterized through ICP-OES, TEM, SEM-EDX, and XRD to assess morphology, elemental composition, total and zero valent iron concentration, and crystalline phases. The nanoparticles were supplemented at different doses (100 mg center dot L-1, 500 mg center dot L-1, and 1000 mg center dot L-1) to semi-continuous lab-scale anaerobic digesters fed on municipal sludge. Biomethane production increased by 23.3 %, 16.7 %, and 22.2 % for the 100, 500, and 1000 mg center dot L-1 doses, respectively, while biogas production increased by 31.9 %, 18.9 %, and 26.5 % compared to the corresponding Control. Microbial community analysis revealed that nanoparticles induced dose-dependent structural shifts, with enrichment of methanogenic families such as Methanoregulaceae, while overall microbial richness remained stable.

This study evaluates the performance of microalgal-based carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles (ME-nFe) for the adsorption of per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and synthetic dyes from aqueous solution at laboratory scale. ME-nFe were produced by hydrothermal carbonization (225 degrees C, 3 h) of wastewater-grown microalgae, combining the high reactivity of iron nanoparticles (40% total Fe) with a mixed macro-mesoporous structure supporting them (total pore volume 0.65 cm3 & sdot;g-1, BET surface area 117 m2 & sdot;g-1). Batch tests at pH 3 and dosages of 1-2 g & sdot;L-1 showed removal above 90% for medium-and long-chain PFAS (PFUnDA, PFDoDA, PFOS, PFDA, PFNA) and more than 60% removal of PFOA at concentrations typically found in industrial wastewater or landfill leachate (approximate to 15 & micro;g & sdot;L-1) after 200 min, whereas short-chain PFBS, PFHxA and PFPeA were only weakly removed. Dye adsorption at equilibrium (30 min) confirmed strong affinity for cationic dyes at neutral pH and for anionic dyes under acidic conditions. Based on their log Kd, Procion Red, 3B Red, Methyl Orange and Sudan Black closely reproduce the adsorption behaviour of medium-and long-chain PFAS on MEnFe, supporting their use as cost-effective proxies during adsorbent optimisation. Overall, ME-nFe emerge as a promising adsorbent for PFAS remediation.

In the framework of the STAR project, the valorisation of stearate based solid lubricant waste from wire drawing process was investigated with respect to material recovery (addition in polymeric matrices) or energy recovery (anaerobic digestion with biomethane production). The aim of the present study is to compare different scenarios for the treatment or recovery of wire drawing lubricant waste (WDW) in order to identify the best option from an environmental point of view. The study was conducted using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology. The functional unit considered was “treatment or recovery of 1 kg of WDW”. The impacts of three scenarios were compared: 1. Business As Usual (BAU): WDW incineration with energy recovery; 2. Material recovery in the production of LDPE-based composite polymers; 3. Anaerobic digestion of WDW, with biogas production and its conversion to biomethane. In all scenarios, the process that generated the waste was excluded, while credits associated with avoided products were included. The Life Cycle Inventory model was created in the Simapro 10.2 software. The impact calculation was carried out using the EF 3.1 method. The scenario that guarantees the greatest benefit in terms of avoided impacts is scenario 2 (−282.22 µPt) (figure). The other two scenarios have much lower values: −5.58 µPt for the BAU scenario and 4.37 µPt for the anaerobic digestion scenario. This result strongly depends on the assumptions regarding the polymer substitution rate (1 kg of LDPE avoided for every kg of WDW recovered) and methane production rate (0.22 m3 of fossil methane avoided for every kg of WDW recovered) and may vary, in case more specific values become available in the future.

Microalgae provide a promising alternative for aquaculture, containing more than 40 % of protein, and up to 80 % of carbohydrates as β-1,3-glucan. The cultivation cost of Euglena biomass at a laboratory scale is estimated at €2.14 per kilogram, while at industrial scale it exceeds €5 per kilogram, highlighting the need to explore more cost and resource-efficient approaches. This study focuses on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Euglena gracilis cultivation on liquid digestate and vinasse under purple LED strip lighting during a 144-hour growth period, which provides the highest biomass and paramylon production at laboratory scale. The research was performed using SimaPro software (version 10.1, 2022), and Ecoinvent database (version 3.10). Environmental impact assessment was carried out using the ReCiPe 2016 Midpoint (H) and Endpoint (H) methods. The system boundaries focus on the core stages of microalgae production, including sterilisation, cultivation, harvesting and drying, while upstream and downstream processes were excluded. The results show that nearly 93 % of the total environmental impact originates from the cultivation stage, which accounts for 0.8005 kg CO₂ eq. out of a total Global Warming Potential impact of 0.8551 kg CO₂ eq. Meanwhile impacts associated with the sterilisation, harvesting and drying stages were negligible for most categories, accounting for less than 6 %. Following this observation, the cultivation duration was assumed to be reduce by 50 %, while maintaining the approximate biomass amount and higher paramylon accumulation during this period. The results demonstrate that halving the cultivation duration from 144 to 72 hours reduced the total environmental damage from 25.55 to 13.51 mPt, corresponding to a 47.15 % decrease, indicating a highly dependence of total environmental performance on cultivation time. These findings suggest that optimising cultivation duration can improve the environmental performance of Euglena biomass production, while also reducing energy use and associated costs at a potential industrial scale. Although laboratory studies on the LCA of microalgae production remains limited, these results can provide essential insight to support the implementation of cultivation processes at industrial scale for aquaculture applications.

The contamination of sea ice by microplastics (MPs) and microfibers (MFs) is still underexplored. In this study, we report the abundance, chemical composition, and vertical distribution of MPs and MFs in the seasonal sea ice of Amur Bay (Sea of Japan, Russia). More specifically, three ice cores (38-53 cm long) were manually extracted, sectioned into ∼5 cm layers, melted, and filtered without chemical pretreatment and then submitted to μFTIR analysis. A total of 29 filters, corresponding to ∼24.5 kg of sea ice, were analyzed. Overall, 6026 anthropogenic items in the 25-5000 μm size range were identified, yielding a bulk mean of 4716 ± 2509 items/L. Among them, 94.7% were fibers, 4.1% fragments, and 1.2% films. Particles between 0.3 and 5 mm represented over 80% of the total, while smaller particles were less abundant. Notably, 90% of fibers were cellulose-based. MPs averaged 685 ± 550 items/L and consisted mainly of polyester (47%), acrylic (25%), polyethylene (4%), and polystyrene (3%). Core T15-K4 exhibited significant stratification, with fibers concentrated in the middle layers, whereas T13-K1 and T15-K2 showed no significant vertical variation. These findings indicate that first-year sea ice functions as a temporary sink for anthropogenic particulate pollutants. The strong predominance of cellulosic MFs underscores the need to include natural and semi-synthetic fibers in future monitoring efforts.

This study evaluates the environmental and economic performance of alternative reconversion strategies for drained peatlands following industrial extraction, using a real case study from Latvia. In alignment with the EU Nature Restoration Law, three main restoration pathways were analysed (i.e., renaturalization, afforestation, and blueberry cultivation), each modelled through a 100-year Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) framework. The LCA focused on greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions, while the economic assessment included implementation costs, revenues, and the monetary value of ecosystem services. Results show that maintaining drained peatlands is the most unsustainable option (756.65 t CO2 eq ha(-)(1)). Renaturalization and blueberry cultivation reduce emissions by 225.49 t CO2 eq ha(-)(1) and 258.45 t CO2 eq ha(-)(1), respectively, whereas afforestation demonstrates the highest mitigation potential, achieving carbon neutrality after 67 years and a net GHG uptake of 310.09 t CO2 eq ha(-)(1) by year 100. Integrating renewable-energy systems further enhances performance, with afforestation combined with solar or wind installations yielding additional avoided emissions exceeding 500 t CO2 eq ha(-)(1). Economically, blueberry cultivation provides the largest direct revenues, while afforestation yields the highest carbon-credit value. However, when ecosystem services are monetized, renaturalization becomes the most beneficial strategy, reaching a cumulative value of 31.2 million ha(-)(1). Overall, the study highlights that combining LCA and LCC provides robust decision support for sustainable peatland management, demonstrating that rewetting and afforestation can effectively balance climate-mitigation goals with socio-economic viability. Furthermore, the economic outcomes are strongly influenced by the ecosystem-service monetisation methodology used; the assumptions and limitations of this approach are now fully clarified in the Methods and discussed as a source of uncertainty. Given the limited availability of long-term field data, the analysis is based on deterministic scenarios without explicit uncertainty ranges, variability estimates, or sensitivity analyses. Likewise, N2O fluxes could not be included due to the lack of robust, site-specific emission factors for restored peatlands.

Industrial laundries need large amounts of energy and water and, thus, generate large amounts of wastewater, due to the core washing, drying and ironing processes and to the transport of linen and chemicals. The presented Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) concerns an Italian industrial laundry, and is based on primary data collected from the facility, complemented by information from literature, supporting databases (Ecoinvent 3.8), and technical datasheets. The analysis covers the entire cycle of linen processing (material extraction and manufacturing, transport, logistics, laundry processes, wastewater treatment and reuse, packaging, and solid waste management). The defined Functional Unit (FU) is 1 kg of linen. The LCA, carried out by SimaPro 9.2 and ReCiPe 2016 H, indicates a total impact of 12.77 mPt/FU, chiefly deriving from washing (4.62 mPt), ironing (4.29 mPt), and drying (1.56 mPt). Detergents and washing agents contribute significantly to the impact of the washing phase. 'Fine particulate formation' is the most affected impact category (5.18 mPt). The initial results suggested that generating renewable energy on-site could reduce the environmental impact by 19.7%. Solar photovoltaic panels were installed in 2023, and the actual energy production exceeded expectations, indicating an even greater reduction in the laundry environmental footprint.

In the framework of the STAR (Stearato dai processi di Trafilatura del filo di Acciaio come Risorsa) project, funded by the Italian Ministry of the Environment, the valorisation of stearate based solid lubricant waste from wire drawing process as an energy source is investigated. As for anaerobic digestion, preliminary tests determined a biomethane production in the range 500–900 L/kgVS, much higher than the production from animal waste (around 400 L/kgVS). On this basis, co-digestion of the waste with primary sludge from wastewater treatment was tested. The experiments used 2-litre reactors with a 1.5 litre working volume, equipped with valves, gas bags, and connected to an Automatic Methane Potential Test System for real-time biomethane monitoring. Reactors, mixed every 30 minutes, were filled with anaerobic inoculum and sewage sludge, flushed with nitrogen, and maintained at 35 °C. Following a stabilization period, the reactors were operated in semi-continuous mode, with a hydraulic retention time of 3 weeks. Weekly, a digestate sample of 0.5 L was replaced by an equivalent amount of fresh substrate: primary sludge with 10%VS stearate waste in the sample reactor and primary sludge in the control reactor. Before the feeding, the substrate was concentrated to 30 g/L of total solid. This solid concentration was maintained to ensure an Organic Loading Rate of around 1 g·L·d-1 and to enhance operational stability. Cumulative biomethane production as a function of time (Figure) reached up to more than 20 NL in seven weeks and did not show significant differences between sample and control, thus supporting the hypothesis that anaerobic digestion is a suitable treatment for this type of waste.

The marine environment and its vital biodiversity are increasingly threatened by anthropogenic pollution, particularly UV filter compounds in sunscreen formulations. These contaminants enter coastal waters directly through recreational activities or indirectly via wastewater, posing ecological risks, especially in densely populated or touristic regions. Despite several studies documenting the adverse effects of UV filters on marine life, including anthozoans with enhanced coral bleaching, impaired reproduction, and increased oxidative stress, research in the Mediterranean region remains limited. This study investigates the occurrence of UV filters in Paramuricea clavata within and outside the Portofino Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea. Findings confirm the potential for bioaccumulation of oxybenzone in P. clavata , possibly influenced by environmental conditions, with higher contaminant levels outside the MPA, highlighting the potential protective role of MPAs in mitigating bioaccumulation. Although overall low concentrations were detected, results indicate potential bioaccumulation and environmental persistence of oxybenzone and octinoxate, suggesting the need for further research to understand their long-term residency and impact on marine ecosystems.

STAR (Stearato dai processi di Trafilatura del filo di Acciaio come Risorsa) project, funded by the Italian Ministry of the Environment, has the ambition of redesigning the use and life cycle of waste stearates from the steel wire drawing industry, promoting the circular life of such materials. Waste stearate is having a strong impact on the economic and environmental sustainability of the steel wire production processes, adding up to the increasing pressure that industry has been facing in the last years: the pandemic crisis, the raw material price increase, the commercial restrictions related to the Ukraine and other regional conflicts.The short-term goal of the project is to develop a technology to be applied on a local scale and the long-term one is expanding it internationally. The benefits are both environmental, due to the reduction of waste and related impact on the environment, and economic, due to stearate valorization.First, stearate waste from wire drawing process were characterized in order to valorize them in the production of new materials or as an energy source.Samples of stearate waste were provided by wire drawing industries and the analyses showed that the humidity content was always low (0.1 – 5 %), while the volatile solids (VS) content varied from 2 to 70%, covering a very wide range and thus indicating a variable organic matter content. The mean higher heating value was 26 MJ/kg and the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 500 mg O2/g and correlated well with VS. pH was strongly basic (>11).Anaerobic digestion can surely have an important role in valorization, as it allows to recover energy and to produce a stabilized digestate for which a further use can be studied, according to its properties. Preliminary BMP tests (BMP = Biomethane Potential) determined a biomethane production in the range 500-900 L/kgVS, much higher than the production from animal waste (around 400 L/kgVS). The toxicity of the digestate was assessed by Microtox® assay and was negligible. This finding supports the hypothesis that recalcitrant compounds, which do not undergo degradation in anaerobic conditions, are not toxic.

Polyethylene (PE) is the most-produced polyolefin, and consequently, it is the most widely found plastic waste worldwide. PE biodegradation is under study by applying different (micro)organisms in order to understand the biodegradative mechanism in the majority of microbes. This study aims to identify novel bacterial species with compelling metabolic potential and strategic genetic repertoires for PE biodegradation. Pseudomonas citronellolis E5 is newly isolated from solid organic waste contaminated with plastic debris, and Rhodococcus erythropolis D4 was selected for its promising potential in biodegradable plastic determined by its genetic repertoire. P. citronellolis E5 was selected for its ability to grow on PE as the only carbon and energy source. Meaningful extracellular secreted laccase activity was also characterized for D4 during growth on PE (E5 and D4 strains have a laccase activity of (2 ± 1)×10–3 U mg−1 and (3 ± 1)×10–3 U mg−1, respectively). Despite the highest level of cell numbers recorded at 7 days of growth on PE for both strains, the patterns of the metabolic products obtained and degraded during 60 days on PE were dissimilar in the two bacteria at different sampling times. However, they mainly produced metabolites belonging to carboxylic acids and alkanes with varying numbers of carbons in the aliphatic chains. Whole-genome sequence analyses of P. citronellolis E5 compared to R. erythropolis D4 and genetic determinant prediction (by gene annotation and multiple sequence alignment with reference gene products) have been performed, providing a list of 16 and 42 gene products putatively related to different metabolic steps of PE biodegradation. Altogether, these results support insights into PE biodegradation by bacteria of the Pseudomonas and Rhodococcus genera from metabolic and genetic perspectives as a base to build up novel biotechnological platforms.

This study evaluates the use of carbon-encapsulated zero-valent iron nanoparticles for biogas upgrading in wet systems. The nanoparticles were produced by hydrothermal carbonization, using olive mill waste (OMW) or microalgae as carbon sources. The solids were characterized to investigate the specific surface area, total and zero-valent iron content, pH(PZC) and chemical and crystalline composition. Their adsorption performance towards hydrogen sulphide (H2S) was tested by treating two types of synthetic biogas with and without CO2. In both cases, the starting H2S concentration was approximately 60 ppm and the experiments lasted until the complete saturation of the nanoparticles. Optimal Fe/C ratios of 0.05 for OMW nanoparticles and 0.2 for microalgae nanoparticles demonstrated H2S-specific adsorption capacities of 9.66 and 9.55 mgH2SgCE-nZVI-1, respectively, in a synthetic biogas without CO2. The addition of CO2 in biogas reduced adsorption, possibly due to system acidification. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis revealed surface compounds on the surface of the spent nanoparticles, including disulphides, polysulphides and sulphate. The saturated adsorbents were effectively regenerated with air, leading to the oxidation of sulphur species and desorption. The regeneration allowed a total adsorption capacity of 53.25 and 34.14 mgH2SgCE-nZVI-1, after 10 consecutive cycles of adsorption/regeneration with a single batch of olive mill and microalgae nanoparticles, respectively.

This mini-review is intended to explore the innovative applications of nanoparticles (NPs) in biogas upgrading, emphasizing their capacity to enhance biogas quality. Numerous studies underscore how NPs, when applied during anaerobic digestion, can boost not only the quantity but also the quality of the produced biogas, leading to reduce significantly the concentration of hydrogen sulphide or even to remove it completely. Moreover, NPs are proving to be excellent alternatives as adsorbent materials, achieving up to 400 mg H2S g −1 NPs. In addition, new studies are exploring the application of NPs to increase the efficiency of biological treatments thanks to their unique features. This review also emphasizes the potential benefits and addresses the challenges that need to be overcome for these technologies to reach their full potential, ultimately contributing to the development of a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy landscape.

This study evaluates the effectiveness of a pilot-scale high-rate algae-bacteria pond (HRAP) to remove pharmaceutical compounds (PhACs) from municipal centrate. The studied PhACs belonged to different classes of synthetic active compounds: antihypertensives, antiepileptics, antidepressants, neuroprotectors, and anti-inflammatory drugs. The HRAP, growing a mixed microalgal consortium made of Chlorella spp. and Scenedesmus spp., was operated in continuous mode (6 days hydraulic retention time) from May to November 2021. Removal efficiencies were high (>85 %) for Sulfamethoxazole and Lamotrigine, promising (65-70 %) for Metoprolol, Fluoxetine, and Diclofenac but low (30-40 %) for Amisulpride, Ofloxacin, Carbamazepine, and Clarithromycin. Propyphenazone and Irbesartan were not removed, and their concentrations increased after the treatment. The combination of abiotic and biotic drivers (mostly global radiation and the synergy between microalgae and bacteria metabolisms) fostered photo and biodegradation processes. Overall, results suggest that microalgae-based systems can be a valuable solution to remove PhACs from wastewater.

Diesel contamination of farming soils is of great concern because hydrocarbons are toxic to all forms of life and can potentially enter the food web through crops or plants used for remediation. Data on plant ability to uptake, translocate and accumulate diesel-derived compounds are controversial not only due to the probable diverse attitude of plant species but also because of the lack of a reliable method with which to distinguish petrogenic from biogenic compounds in plant tissues. The purpose of this study was to set up a GC-MS-based protocol enabling the determination of diesel-derived hydrocarbons in plants grown in contaminated soil for assessing human and ecological risks, predicting phytoremediation effectiveness and biomass disposal. To this end, two plant species, Vicia sativa L. and Secale cereale L., belonging to two diverse vascular plant families, were used as plant models. They were grown in soil spiked with increasing concentrations of diesel fuel, and the produced biomass was used to set up the hydrocarbon extraction and GC-MSD analysis. The developed protocol was also applied to the analysis of Typha latifolia L. plants, belonging to a different botanical family and grown in a long-time and highly contaminated natural soil. Results showed the possibility of distinguishing diesel-derived compounds from biogenic hydrocarbons in most terrestrial vascular plants, just considering the total diesel compounds in the n-alkanes carbon range C10–C26, where the interference of biogenic compounds is negligible. Diesel hydrocarbons quantification in plant tissues was strongly correlated (0.92 < r2 < 0.99) to the concentration of diesel in spiked soils, suggesting a general ability of the considered plant species to adsorb and translocate relatively low amounts of diesel hydrocarbons and the reliability of the developed protocol.

At present the information regarding the occurrence of human pharmaceuticals (PhaCs) in coral reefs and their potential impacts on the associated fauna is limited. To optimize the collection of data in these delicate environments, we employed a solid-phase microextraction (bioSPME) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) procedure that enabled in vivo determinations in soft corals. Specifically, we researched the antibiotics Ofloxacin Sulfamethoxazole and Clarithromycin, the anti-inflammatory Diclofenac Propyphenazone Ketoprofen and Amisulpride, the neuroactive compounds Gabapentin-lactam, the beta-blocker Metoprolol and the antiepileptic Carbamazepine. Reproducibility was between 2.1% and 9.9% and method detection limits LODs) were between 0.2 and 1.6 ng/g and LOQs between 0.8 and 5.4 mg/g. The method was then applied to establish a baseline for the occurrence of these compounds in the Maldivian archipelago. Colonies of Sarcophyton sp. and Sinularia sp. were sampled along an inner-outer reef transect. Five of the ten targeted PhaCs were identified, and 40% of the surveyed coral colonies showed the occurrence of at least one of the selected compounds. The highest concentrations were found inside the atoll rim. Oxoflacin (9.5 ± 3.9 ng/g) and Ketoprofen (4.5 ± 2.3 ng/g) were the compounds with the highest average concentrations. Outside the atoll rim, only one sample showed contamination levels above the detection limit. No significant differences were highlighted among the two surveyed soft coral species, both in terms of average concentrations and bioconcentration factors (BCFs).

This study evaluates the effectiveness of microalgal-based carbon-encapsulated iron nanoparticles (ME-nFe) in the removal of pharmaceutical compounds (PhACs) from water solutions and real municipal effluent at a laboratory scale. The investigated PhACs were chosen to represent different classes of synthetic drugs: antibiotics, anti-inflammatory drugs, antihypertensives, antiepileptics, neuroprotectors, and antidepressants. The adsorbent material was produced through hydrothermal carbonization (225 degrees C for 3 h), using microalgae grown on wastewater as the carbon source. ME-nFe showed heterogeneity in terms of porosity (with both abundance of macro and mesopores), a total pore volume of 0.65 mL g(-1), a specific surface area of 117 m(2) g(-1) and a total iron content of 40%. Laboratory scale adsorption tests (1 g L-1 of nanoparticles with 2 min contact time) showed high removal for the most hydrophobic compounds. Removal efficiencies were high (over 98%) for Irbesartan, Ofloxacin and Diclofenac, promising (over 65-80%) for Clarithromycin, Fluoxetine, Lamotrigine and Metoprolol, but low for Gabapentin-Lactam and Propyphenazone (<20%). Electrostatic interactions between the drugs and the surface of the nanoparticles may account for the observed data, although additional removal mechanisms cannot be ruled out.

Diesel contamination of farming soils is of great concern because hydrocarbons are toxic to all forms of life and can potentially enter the food web through crops or plants used for remediation. Data on plant ability to uptake, translocate and accumulate diesel-derived compounds are controversial not only due to the probable diverse attitude of plant species but also because of the lack of a reliable method to distinguish petrogenic from biogenic compounds in plant tissues. The purpose of this study was to set up a GC-MS-based protocol enabling the determination of diesel-derived hydrocarbons in plants grown in contaminated soil for assessing human and ecological risks, predicting phytoremediation effectiveness and biomass disposal. To this aim two plant species Vicia sativa L. and Secale cereale L., belonging to two diverse vascular plant families, were used as plant models. They were grown in soil spiked with increasing concentrations of diesel fuel and the produced biomass was used to set up the hydrocarbon extraction and GC-MSD analysis. The developed protocol was also applied to the analysis of Typha latifolia L. plants, belonging to a different botanical family and grown in a long-time and highly contaminated natural soil. Results showed the possibility of distinguishing diesel-derived compounds from biogenic hydrocarbons in most terrestrial vascular plants, just considering the total diesel compounds in the n-alkanes carbon range C10-C26, where the interference of biogenic compounds is negligible. Diesel hydrocarbons quantification in plant tissues was strongly correlated (0.92

Permeation grouting treatments can be considered a well-established ground improvement strategy in urban built environments, where an accurate fine-tuning of its components can lead to tailored and efficient interventions. However, how to improve its overall environmental impact remains an open question. Using the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach emphasizing the construction phase, this research highlights the leverages that can improve the environmental performance of this geotechnical construction process. The alternative approaches in terms of materials and processes are identified, quantified, and compared using the standard output of the LCA analysis and represent the ideal input for the three-phased sustainability assessment method for geotechnical infrastructure developed by the authors.

Urban growth needs large cities, and the current emphasis on landscape preservation makes using underground spaces an opportunity and a significant necessity. However, underground construction techniques significantly impact the sustainability of the built environment, including infrastructure systems and their entire supply chains. Nowadays, there is a shortage of quantitative methodologies to assess and measure the sustainability of construction and underground building processes towards the three sustainable pillars, i.e. environmental, social, and economic. Thus, this study aims to cover this gap by explaining how to appropriately incorporate sustainability goals into geotechnical projects to address measure-driven strategies and eco-design-based solutions. This study illustrates a novel methodology based on the Life Cycle Thinking approach, with an emphasis on geotechnical ground improvement techniques. The proposed method incorporates the concept of the EU Taxonomy, following the EU Green Deal, with the Envision framework to guide decision-makers toward a more sustainable, resilient, and equitable infrastructure design. The proposed method will incorporate a cradle-to-site Life Cycle Assessment perspective, improving the quantitative estimation of the environmental performance of construction processes and providing guidelines to systematically assess the sustainability of geotechnical infrastructures.