ABSTRACT The plant pathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi has significantly damaged the floristic diversity and community structure of the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest in Western Australia. Complete eradication of the pathogen from infested sites is not possible. This study assessed the feasibility of rehabilitating P. cinnamomi‐infested forest sites with native resistant species using various methods of seed deployment. Precision burial of seeds at 5 mm was used as a control, mimicking optimum recruitment depths for many native species and compared against the use of extruded pellets (hereafter ‘pellets’) as an alternative method of precision seed placement. Eighteen rehabilitation plots were set up in three P. cinnamomi‐infested reserves using six species. For Acacia acuminata, A. saligna, Calothamnus sanguineus and Melaleuca seriata, there were three treatments: precision buried (non‐pelleted) seeds, pellets and pellets with an additive (i.e., a rhizobium bacterium for the Acacia spp. and ectomycorrhizal fungus spores for C. sanguineus and M. seriata). Banksia sessilis and Hakea laurina had only two treatments: precision buried (non‐pelleted) seeds and pellets. Seedlings of all six species emerged successfully in P. cinnamomi‐infested sites, and the numbers ranged between 23% and 88%. The survival of emerged seedlings after 9 months ranged between 16% and 84%, except M. seriata, which emerged at 59% but failed to survive. In most species, except A. acuminata, seedling emergence and survival from pellets were similar and within an acceptable seedling establishment range when compared to non‐pelleted seeds. Pelletised seed with the addition of beneficial microbes did not improve seedling survival or shoot growth in the diseased areas of the jarrah forest. Overall, the results suggest that seedlings of resistant native species can successfully establish in P. cinnamomi‐infested sites and pelletised seeds can be used as a viable method for precision planting.

Rehabilitation is needed to address social and ecological impacts of high-intensity mining activity in the Pilbara region. Yet success is limited by the arid climate, lack of topsoil, and poor plant establishment from sown seeds. Our observations suggest potential for assisted and unassisted plant recruitment in the absence of fresh topsoil.

Water scarcity, a challenge expected to worsen with climate change, significantly hinders native plant community restoration. Enhancing seed‐based restoration requires methods to increase the water availability for seeds and seedlings. Surfactants and superabsorbent polymers (SAPs) can improve soil water‐holding capacity and infiltration, but their use in seed enhancements remains underexplored. We investigated whether pellets containing surfactants or SAPs could improve seedling emergence of two native species ( Rytidosperma caespitosum and Chrysocephalum apiculatum ) common in temperate grasslands in south‐eastern Australia under different watering treatments. We used a randomized block design with five watering treatments to simulate predicted changes in precipitation for south‐eastern Australia: ambient, two reducing overall water volume, and two reducing watering frequency while increasing watering volume to maintain ambient treatment water volume. We explored four enhanced pellets (two containing surfactants and two containing SAPs) and non‐pelleted seeds. Our results showed that watering events with larger volumes but reduced frequency increased seedling emergence. Under these conditions, block co‐polymer surfactants further increased seedling emergence of C. apiculatum , while synthetic SAP pellets promoted emergence of R. caespitosum . Block co‐polymer surfactants decreased R. caespitosum emergence, and both SAPs reduced C. apiculatum emergence under reduced watering frequency. A 50% reduction in overall water volume significantly reduced seedling emergence for both species, regardless of seed enhancement. These findings suggest that surfactants and SAP pellets can improve the success of seed‐based restoration under ambient conditions and when rainfall events are larger in volume but reduced in frequency, but not when the overall volume of rainfall is reduced.

Background and aims Agricultural activities can degrade soils and promote weeds, posing challenges to native species restoration. In agricultural restoration, removing contaminated topsoil is a method designed to reduce elevated soil nutrients caused by fertilisation. This strategy targets weed control by eliminating both aboveground weeds and their soil seed bank before direct seeding. However, it also diminishes native soil seed banks and beneficial soil microbes. We investigated the potential of fresh topsoil pellets containing seeds to improve seedling performance in a degraded grassy woodland where topsoil had been removed. Methods We tested various pellet recipes, including one using commercial ingredients and three with different topsoil proportions (30%, 50%, and 70%). The study was conducted in a degraded grassy woodland in southeastern Australia, where topsoil was removed for restoration. We explored the effect of these pellet varieties on seedling emergence and growth of six native species common in this community, as well as microbial activity in the soil surrounding the seedlings. Results Pellets significantly improved the emergence of Chrysocephalum apiculatum , providing evidence of their effectiveness. However, pellets significantly reduced Arthropodium milleflorum and Glycine tabacina emergence. Linum marginale and Rytidosperma caespitosum emergence remained unaffected by pellets . One species, Bothriochloa macra, had insufficient emergence for analysis. The microbial activity of the soil surrounding Rytidosperma caespitosum seedlings was significantly improved by pellets, with no significant effects observed for other species. Conclusion Our results demonstrate that topsoil pellets improved the emergence of one native species, but reduced emergence for two others, indicating species-specific responses to pelleting.

Seed-based restoration in dryland environments is commonly limited by low and sporadic rainfall, extreme temperatures, and degraded soils. These challenges are exacerbated in dryland mine restoration sites where species are seeded onto mine waste substrates due to limited availability of topsoil. Native grasses are focal dryland and mine restoration species, though the ability to deliver seeds to targeted sites presents further constraints to seed-based restoration due to complex seed morphology and site attributes. Seed enhancement technologies (SETs) may help to mitigate environmental stressors and improving seed handling. In this study, SETs which promote seedling recruitment and/or address edaphic challenges while also improving seed morphology and handling were tested in four Australian native grasses (Cymbopogon ambiguus, C. obtectus, Eulalia aurea, and Eriachne obtusa). Flash flaming or acid digestion (depending on species), extruded seed pellets with or without the addition of topsoil, and flaming or acid digestion used in combination with extruded pellets (with or without topsoil) were evaluated on topsoil and mine waste substrates. Material treated with either flash flaming or acid digestion tended to produce similar maximum emergence (week 3), final emergence (week 14), and above-ground biomass (week 14) on both topsoil and mine waste when compared to the un-enhanced (‘control’) treatment. Extruded pellets enhanced emergence (maximum and final) on both soil types, though had no effect on biomass. Extruded pellets containing topsoil and/or when used in combination with flash flamed or acid digested florets, provided the most significant benefits to seedling emergence, particularly on mine waste soil. However, SETs were unable to mitigate the detrimental effects of mine waste substrates on seedling biomass. This study shows promise for improving seed-based restoration in post-mine and dryland environments using SETs, though also highlights potential limitations and the importance of understanding long-term (i.e., beyond emergence) plant recruitment outcomes in SET applications.

QuestionsNative grasses are widespread with high commercial value and demand across the restoration sector, though their uptake is often hampered by seed-use challenges. Seed enhancement technologies (SETs) provide a valuable tool for improving plant establishment outcomes for species (such as native grasses) where seed-based approaches are essential to achieve large-scale targets. However, due to the increased investment in resources and time associated with application of SETs, their adoption is dependent on the ability of these treatments to consistently provide benefits to one or more demographic life stages, particularly under field conditions. This meta-analysis addresses the following research question: what are the overall effects of SETs on plant establishment outcomes compared to untreated florets or seeds in native grasses globally?LocationGlobal.MethodsThe effects of six major SET categories (acid treatment, coating, pelleting, flash flaming, priming, and treatment combinations) on germination, emergence, and shoot and root length and biomass were explored. Furthermore, the consistency of the effects of SETs across study types (i.e., laboratory, glasshouse, and field) was investigated.ResultsThe overall effects of SETs on native grasses in this meta-analysis were positive for germination (16% improvement), emergence (22% improvement), and growth (6.42-8.86 cm and 2.26-2.77 g increase in seedling length and biomass, respectively). However, effects ranged from neutral to positive when data were grouped by SET type, with coating, pelleting and priming delivering consistent benefits across multiple life stages, and acid treatments, flash flaming, and combination treatments having mixed effects. This analysis also provided evidence that benefits observed from SET application in laboratory and glasshouse studies are not translating to field environments.ConclusionsOverall, SETs generally had positive effects and can therefore provide a relatively low-risk approach to improving seed-based restoration outcomes in native grasses. Continued SET research focussed on long-term plant establishment outcomes in field environments is needed to further advance SET uptake. Through this meta-analysis, the overall effect of seed enhancement technologies (SETs) on plant establishment outcomes in native grasses compared to untreated florets or seeds was found to be positive. SETs provide a relatively low-risk approach to improving seed-based restoration outcomes in native grasses. Further research focussed on specific SETs, and long-term plant establishment in field environments is needed to advance SET uptake.image

Soil microbiota are important components of healthy ecosystems. Greater consideration of soil microbiota in the restoration of biodiverse, functional, and resilient ecosystems is required to address the twin global crises of biodiversity decline and climate change. In this review, we discuss available and emerging practical applications of soil microbiota into (i) restoration planning, (ii) direct interventions for shaping soil biodiversity, and (iii) strategies for monitoring and predicting restoration trajectories. We show how better planning of restoration activities to account for soil microbiota can help improve progress towards restoration targets. We show how planning to embed soil microbiota experiments into restoration projects will permit a more rigorous assessment of the effectiveness of different restoration methods, especially when complemented by statistical modelling approaches that capitalise on existing data sets to improve causal understandings and prioritise research strategies where appropriate. In addition to recovering belowground microbiota, restoration strategies that include soil microbiota can improve the resilience of whole ecosystems. Fundamentally, restoration planning should identify appropriate reference target ecosystem attributes and - from the perspective of soil microbiota - comprehensibly consider potential physical, chemical and biological influences on recovery. We identify that inoculating ecologically appropriate soil microbiota into degraded environments can support a range of restoration interventions (e.g. targeted, broad-spectrum and cultured inoculations) with promising results. Such inoculations however are currently underutilised and knowledge gaps persist surrounding successful establishment in light of community dynamics, including priority effects and community coalescence. We show how the ecological trajectories of restoration sites can be assessed by characterising microbial diversity, composition, and functions in the soil. Ultimately, we highlight practical ways to apply the soil microbiota toolbox across the planning, intervention, and monitoring stages of ecosystem restoration and address persistent open questions at each stage. With continued collaborations between researchers and practitioners to address knowledge gaps, these approaches can improve current restoration practices and ecological outcomes.

QuestionsAnnual species have evolved sets of germination cues that are thought to be predictive of the post-germination environment. In naturally patchy environments, germination microsites often vary considerably in the amount of light they receive and in the diurnal temperature fluctuations they experience. However, whether species' differential germination responses to light and temperature are associated with their spatial patterns of occurrence remains largely untested.LocationMediterranean-climate woodlands in Southwest Western Australia.MethodsWe surveyed species' occurrences in annual plant communities in 150 quadrats across gradients of canopy cover and litter cover. Nineteen species recorded in this survey were then included in a germination experiment that manipulated (1) Light vs Dark (12 h light or continuous dark) approximating seeds near the soil surface vs those covered by litter and (2) Cold vs Warm temperature regimes (7/18 degrees C and 7/24 degrees C) approximating diurnal fluctuations experienced in shaded vs sun-exposed microsites, respectively.ResultsIn the germination experiment, six species had highest germination probabilities in the Light treatment (regardless of temperature), five in Cold + Light, one in Warm + Light, two were indifferent to the treatments, and four did not germinate at all. Binomial linear mixed-effects models showed that species' maximum responses to light and temperature did not explain their spatial distributions along canopy cover and litter cover gradients, contrary to theoretical expectations of germination being a strong driver of species' occurrences.ConclusionsDespite variation in species' responses to experimental treatments, no association was found with their field microsite associations. Germination strategies in our system were wider than expected for Mediterranean systems. Our results support that germination cues are not strong drivers of microhabitat associations in this system. Species may "select" microsites via germination cues that predict future habitat quality. We investigated germination responses to light and temperature as drivers of species' associations with tree and litter cover in a guild of winter annuals in Western Australia. Species responded differently to experimental light and temperature treatments, but these responses did not explain their microsite associations in the field.image

The high cost of native seeds and low seedling establishment percentages after seed broadcasting are major constraints for seed-based rehabilitation. This study examines whether extruded seed pelleting can be used as a tool to distribute seeds more effectively (e.g. distribute small seeds in a precise manner) while maintaining or enhancing seedling emergence and establishment of Australian shrub species used in the rehabilitation of Phytophthora cinnamomi infested Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest sites. Pellet formulation was first tested using five different formulations of dry ingredients and the addition of seeds from four Phytophthora-resistant species under glasshouse conditions. The best performing formulation from this work was then adopted to compare laboratory-produced and field-deployed pellets. Seedling emergence of the larger seeded species, Raspberry Jam Wattle (Acacia acuminata) and Pin-cushion Hakea (Hakea laurina), was highest using field-deployed pellets and emergence was statistically similar to the non-pelleted seeds. Seedling emergence reached 100% for the small seeded species, Silky-leaved Bold Flower (Calothamnus sanguineus) and Melaleuca seriata, from laboratory-produced pellets and was significantly higher than non-pelleted seeds. These results indicate that extruded pelleting offers an alternative direct seeding option that can result in greater or equal seedling emergence than that observed with non-pelleted seeds, yet the responses are species-specific. These species-specific pelleting techniques must now be tested under field conditions to confirm whether pellet production method and delivery improve seedling establishment under field conditions.

Restoration managers inoculate microorganisms to enhance soil function and improve restoration success, but the efficacy of these inoculations in real‐world conditions is still unclear. We conducted a field experiment to test whether applying extruded seed pellets inoculated with native microbes affected soil properties related to ecosystem function in severely degraded mine soil. We found that inoculating with bacteria did not affect soil carbon, metabolic quotient (a measure of microbial stress), or basal respiration, but increased soil nitrogen by 75%, substrate‐induced respiration by 147% and reduced carbon‐to‐nitrogen ratio by 44% compared to the control. This suggests that the bacteria inoculant contained free‐living N fixers that increased the soil N content. Thus, inoculating with bacteria could supplement nitrogen fertilizers in degraded soils during soil restoration. However, we found that inoculating with a mix of bacteria and cyanobacteria did not affect any of the soil properties. This finding is counter to results in laboratory studies, suggesting that field tests are critical for understanding real‐world outcomes of microbial inoculation. Finally, we found that soil microbial composition was changed by the inoculation with a mix of bacteria and cyanobacteria. None of the treatments significantly changed the diversity of soil microbial communities. Our data suggest that microbial inoculation could improve some aspects of ecosystem function and thus provide beneficial effects that might facilitate restoration of degraded sites.

Abstract Background and aims Agricultural activities can degrade soils and promote weeds, posing challenges in restoring native plant species. Removing contaminated topsoil, a restoration method used in some agricultural systems, reduces soil nutrients, and eliminates weeds both aboveground and in soil seed bank before direct seeding. However, it also diminishes native soil seed banks and beneficial soil microbes. We investigated the potential of encasing seeds in pellets containing fresh topsoil to improve seedling performance and establishment on a degraded grassy woodland where topsoil had been removed. Methods We tested various pellet recipes, including one using commercial ingredients and three with different topsoil proportions (30%, 50%, and 70%). The study was conducted in a degraded grassy woodland in southeastern Australia, where topsoil was removed. We explored the effect of these pellet varieties on seedling emergence and growth of six native species common in this community, as well microbial activity in the soil. Results Pellets significantly improved the emergence of Chrysocephalum apiculatum, providing evidence of their effectiveness. However, pellets significantly reduced Arthropodium milleflorum and Glycine tabacina emergence. Linum marginale and Rytidosperma caespitosum emergence remained unaffected by pellets. One species, Bothriochloa macra, had insufficient emergence for analysis. The microbial activity of the soil surrounding Rytidosperma caespitosum seedlings was significantly improved by pellets, with no significant effects observed for other species. Conclusion Overall, our results demonstrate that using seed enhancement technologies in combination with direct seeding can improve the emergence of one native species on degraded agricultural soil, potentially facilitating the recovery of degraded ecosystems.

In a recent paper entitled “First Peoples’ knowledge leads scientists to reveal ‘fairy circles’ and termite linyji are linked in Australia” Walsh et al. (1) generalize that these “so-called fairy circles” are pavement nests occupied by Drepanotermes harvester termites based on knowledge of the First Peoples and short-term fieldwork. These authors make direct reference to many publications of our work (2-7) which focuses on a specific vegetation pattern in a small area east of Newman. In this system we were the first to study and report the extremely regular, spatially periodic vegetation patterns present at large spatial scales in the area - for which we termed “fairy circles” (FCs). These FCs are a rare phenomenon and possess specific characteristics only observed in Namibia and the study area near Newman. With these properties, and for which we argue are caused by plant self-organization over large distances, they differ from common Drepanotermes termite gaps that are abundant in Australia but are not spatially periodic, and to which the study by Walsh et al. and their previous work (8) primarily refers. With our Matters Arising article we want to clarify three important points. 1) The “fairy circles” documented near Newman are not merely any regularly spaced bare patches in small, isolated locations but a special and unique case of extremely regular, spatially periodic patterns at large spatial scales. 2) Only long-term, detailed fieldwork can reveal the complex causal ecological processes that form these FCs, and especially termite presence does not necessarily imply that termites are the cause of this pattern and 3) Walsh et al. did not cite all the relevant literature, which describes in detail the causal processes of FC formation due to overland water flow mechanism in this specific study system (2).

Context Seeding is common practice for ecological restoration, but establishment rates can be low. For seeds to successfully establish they must transition through early life stages of germination, emergence, and (initial) survival. Examining these demographic processes for seeds sown under a range of abiotic conditions can identify failure points and inform techniques to improve seed use. Aims Here we quantified seed and seedling life-stage transitions in five reconstructed soils across four varying levels of simulated rainfall using five species (Acacia hilliana, Acacia inaequilatera, Indigofera monophylla, Triodia pungens, and Triodia wiseana) commonly seeded for mined land restoration of the Pilbara bioregion in north-west Western Australia. Methods Germination, emergence, and survival were measured over a 6 week period and transition probabilities between each life-stage transition were modelled for each treatment combination. Key results For four species, both rainfall amount and/or soil substrate significantly influenced germination probability. Rainfall was the more significant determinant, with germination greatest under the higher rainfall regimes of 120–280 mm, irrespective of soil type. Following germination, emergence of both Acacia spp. was positively influenced by soils containing topsoil, suggesting the microenvironment of soils containing topsoil was most favourable during this emergence phase. The effect of substrate was less clearcut for I. monophylla and Triodia spp, where emergence was most limited in substrates comprised solely of overburden waste material and the lowest rainfall regime exacerbated emergence failure, relative to germination success. When compared to the well-watered, 100% topsoil substrate, seedling survival of all species was most constrained in the 100% overburden waste, demonstrating these reconstructed mining substrates compromise seedling recruitment. Conclusions This study underscores that successful seedling recruitment in this ecosystem is dependent on frequent, and repeated, rainfall events above a certain threshold (≥120 mm) and highlights the beneficial effects of sowing seeds in a substrate containing topsoil. Implications Future seeding technologies should focus on improving the moisture relations of the microsite to offset the recruitment challenges experienced by seeds sown in hostile growing environments such as the overburden wastes tested here.

Extruded pellets containing activated carbon (AC) can be used to sow native seeds while simultaneously applying herbicide to control invasive species. Incorporating AC in pellets has been demonstrated to protect native seeds; however, there may be unintended detrimental impacts to seedling emergence. We aimed to optimize seed position within pellets to maximize emergence and survival of the perennial shrub Jacksonia furcellata . Seeds were positioned at 2 mm (top), 6 mm (middle), and 12 mm (bottom) within pellets (with or without AC), sown on or below the soil surface, and compared to non‐pelleted seeds sown under the soil surface in the equivalent positions (2, 6, and 12 mm depth). Trays were treated with a pre‐emergent herbicide (Simazine) or left unsprayed. Emergence (without herbicide) was significantly higher from seeds positioned at the bottom of pellets without AC sown on the soil surface (70%), compared to non‐pelleted seeds sown at the bottom (12 mm below the soil surface; 57%). However, emergence was inhibited when seeds were positioned in the middle (6 mm) of pellets with AC (32%). When treated with Simazine, survival was highest from seeds positioned at the bottom of pellets with AC (60%), compared to pellets without AC (15%) and non‐pelleted seeds sown at the bottom (12 mm below the soil surface; 15%). Jacksonia furcellata seeds positioned at the bottom of pellets, sown on the soil surface, shows promise to minimize negative impacts to emergence, and maximize herbicide protection. Further testing with additional species is required to refine pellet production (e.g. recipe, extrusion, and shape) for optimal emergence.

Ecological restoration of rangelands using wild-collected seeds can be challenging due to low seed quality, inconvenient seed anatomy, and poor plant establishment. In North America, the half-shrub winterfat (Krascheninnikovia lanata) is a valuable protein-rich forage for wildlife and livestock. Seeds of this species are contained in one-seeded fruits enclosed in four fluffy, silky bracts. While the seeds can be removed from the bracts, it is not recommended as the bracts are thought to help protect the seed and aid in germination and seedling growth. However, bracts of winterfat make it difficult to incorporate this species within a seed mix because they prevent the seed from flowing through mechanized seeders. The anatomy of winterfat fruit also makes it difficult to treat this species with external seed-coating materials that may aid in direct seeding efforts. We tested the use of a recently developed flash-flaming technique in combination with seed coating to improve the flowability of winterfat fruits. Our results indicate that flash flaming can reduce the appendages on winterfat fruits, which decreased fruit volume by up to 46% without impacting seed germination. Flash flaming also makes it possible to incorporate a polymer seed coating to the exterior of winterfat fruits. We found that flash flaming combined with seed coating improved the flowability of winterfat fruits, as measured with standard laboratory tests and by delivering fruits through a broadcast seeder and a rangeland drill. These results indicate that flash flaming plus seed coating provides a new technology that will allow for the treating and planting of winterfat on degraded rangelands.

Invasive plant species create barriers to native species' reestablishment after land degradation. Postemergent herbicides are preferred (over preemergent) for use in restoration as they are not expected to affect native seeds. However, recent studies found that postemergent herbicides can persist in soils and reduce native species' seed germination and seedling emergence. Activated carbon seed enhancement technologies (SETs) can protect seeds from preemergent herbicides but are untested with postemergent herbicides. We explored the effects of two postemergent herbicides, Roundup and Fusilade, on seedling emergence and health of five species native to Banksia Woodlands of Western Australia. We investigated if activated carbon SETs protect seeds and seedlings from any negative effects caused by herbicide application. A randomized block design was used, and herbicide applied to the soil after seeds (nonenhanced and enhanced with activated carbon SETs) were sown under field conditions. Roundup considerably reduced seedling emergence of Acacia pulchella , Banksia menziesii , and Eucalyptus todtiana , whereas Fusilade did not negatively affect emergence. Both herbicides considerably reduced seedling health for A. pulchella , B. menziesii , and E. todtiana . Activated carbon increased A. manglesii emergence in all treatments. Activated carbon also notably increased the percentage of healthy A. pulchella , B. menziesii , and E. todtiana seedlings in herbicide treatments, indicating that activated carbon can provide protection from postemergent herbicides applied to the soil before seedling emergence. Roundup and Fusilade should not be used in restoration when soil seed banks are the source of native seeds, and a time lag is required when direct seeding after herbicide application.

Seed-based restoration efforts frequently experience limited success due to competition from invasive plant species and poor soil conditions. We aimed to alleviate these plant recruitment barriers through a combination of carbon-based seed enhancement technologies and commonly applied restoration management practices. Compared to non-pelleted (control) seeds, we tested seven seed enhancement technologies on Grey Stinkwood (Jacksonia furcellata), a perennial shrub common within the Banksia Woodlands of Western Australia, which included extruded pellets, coating and coins (a novel extrusion method), incorporated with activated carbon or biochar. We tested five management practices including combinations of herbicide and soil ripping at two locations (post-sand mine and Post-pine plantation). At the Post-pine site, coins incorporating biochar had the highest overall mean emergence (53%), and at the Post-mine site, extruded pellets containing activated carbon had the highest mean emergence (58%). In comparison, emergence was significantly lower from the non-pelleted seeds (44% and 45% respectively). Survival at the Post-mine site was also higher from biochar coins (31%) compared to the non-pelleted seeds (22%), and highest in plots with herbicide application followed by soil ripping (36%), compared to the control, in which no management practice was applied (16%). At the Post-pine site, survival was poor (<10%), and seed treatment and management practice did not significantly affect seedling survival. Using carbon-based seed treatments and management practices, such as herbicide application followed by soil ripping, may help to overcome seedling emergence bottlenecks in direct seeding programmes. However, further examination into seedling survival is required, particularly within highly degraded settings, before seed enhancement technologies are used in large-scale seeding programmes.

Difficult to handle seed material and poor germination commonly limit the uptake of native grasses in restoration and commercial-scale seeding efforts. Seed enhancement technologies (SETs) offer valuable solutions for improving the handling of seed material and optimising germination. This study considered eight widespread Australian native grasses; two representative of Mediterranean to temperate climates ('cool-climate' species) and six representative of arid to subtropical climates ('warm-climate' species). Through a series of experiments, this study logically selected and applied SET treatments to improve seed handling and germination for each study species. Seed handling was prioritised and addressed using flash flaming and/or acid digestion, while hydropriming was used following seed-handling treatments to enhance germination. Flash flaming and acid digestion were both applied to successfully reduce or remove bulky floret structures while maintaining or improving germination. Flaming at 110 ± 10 °C with continuous exposure for 10 min and acid digestion concentrations of 75-80% with exposure times of 1-2.5 min were generally successful. Sub-optimal concentrations of sulphuric acid often compromised germination. Hydropriming did not improve germination outcomes when applied following flaming or acid digestion. Optimising SETs for germination, emergence and establishment in different environments, and the viability and costs of application on larger seed batches are key considerations for the implementation and upscaling of SETs in the future.

Research in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1‐km 2 resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1‐km 2 pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse‐grained air temperature estimates from ERA5‐Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome‐specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near‐surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil‐related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.