We estimate the effect of the staggered adoption of carbon pricing policies across the globe between 1990 and 2017 on per capita CO_2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. We use recent econometric techniques robust to treatment effect heterogeneity. Our dynamic treatment effect estimations indicate gradual adjustments after implementation, resulting in a 19 to 23 percent decrease in CO_2 emissions after 10 years. These effects were primarily driven by resource substitution rather than improvements in energy efficiency and were not driven by short-term responses to carbon prices. Our results are robust to controlling for the potential effects of renewable energy policies. These results highlight the role of carbon pricing policies in steering medium-term expectations and complementing the climate policy mix.

The taxation of aviation is a frequently discussed component of governments' efforts to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. This study examines the impact of the German aviation tax on passenger numbers during the period 2011-2019 using five panel data estimators and a Specification Curve Analysis (SCA) to assess the robustness of the results to changes in the specifications of the econometric model. Employing five base models, we find that the tax induced a 6-11% reduction in the number of passengers departing annually from Germany in the first two years after implementation. For later years, estimated effects are more ambiguous. The SCA, comprising 175 alternative specifications, corroborates our main findings while showing a slightly wider range of effect sizes, especially on the upper bound. The results show that the choice of econometric method can affect research outcomes, especially for the fourth year of the tax and onward.

Forests play an essential role in climate change mitigation by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing carbon in biomass. Carbon sequestration can be increased by the extension of rotation cycles in existing plantation forests. This study examines the cost‐effectiveness of the remuneration scheme employed by Verified Carbon Standard (VCS), a commonly used carbon accounting method based on the average amount of carbon stored in the forest. We compare the net present value of carbon remuneration under VCS with that of a scheme that remunerates actual carbon storage in each year which we call “current carbon accounting.” We use data for an Acacia mangium plantation in Indonesia where the forestry sector is expected to contribute more than half of the reductions of carbon emissions according to Indonesia's Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement. For our baseline scenario, we find, first, that the payments needed to incentivise additional carbon storage under VCS are considerably higher than under current carbon accounting. Second, the inefficiency is more pronounced at lower discount rates. Third, recent prices reported for VCS forest credits are not sufficient to incentivise forest managers to lengthen the forest rotation in Indonesian plantation forests.

We develop a descriptive framework to facilitate policy instrument evaluation in relation to the low-carbon transition. The framework consists of a stock-taking and mapping analysis based on five questions. Four questions allow the policy maker to take stock of the existing set of instruments and provide a description of the key attributes and incentive of individual instruments. These attributes are subsequently mapped to identifiers of market failures related to the transition. A fifth question considers the coherence of the mix or package of policy instruments that the instruments constitute. The result is an overview of the incentives for firms and households to contribute to the transition towards a decarbonised economy. This can then be used to evaluate whether the set of policy instruments can be improved. We apply our framework to the residential and commercial (buildings) sector in an ambitious country, Austria.

Background Cultivated spinach ( Spinacia oleracea) is a highly nutritional crop species of great economical value that belongs to a genus of dioecious plant species with both homomorphic and heteromorphic sex chromosomes. The wild spinach species Spinacia turkestanica and Spinacia tetrandra are important genetic sources for improving cultivated spinach and excellent material for studying sex chromosome evolution in plants. However, until now there were no publicly available genome assemblies for these species. Results Here we sequenced and assembled the genomes of S. turkestanica and S. tetrandra and performed a tri-way comparative analysis with S. oleracea . We show that many abiotic- and biotic stress related gene clusters have expanded through tandem duplication in S. tetrandra after it diverged from the S. turkestanica - S. oleracea lineage. Focussing on the sex chromosomes we found that the previously identified inversion distinguishing the S. oleracea male- and female-SEX DETERMINING REGIONs (SDRs) is conserved in S. turkestanica . Although, the SDRs of these two species coincides with the PSEUDO AUTOSOMAL REGION of S. tetrandra the gene content is only partially conserved and the genetic factors determining sex in these species might differ. Finally, we show that recombination suppression between the S. tetrandra X- and Y-chromosomes resulted in a highly degenerated Y-chromosome and started before the species diverged from S. turkestanica and S. oleracea . Conclusions We expect that the novel wild spinach species genomes are of great value to the breeding community and evolutionary biologist especially focussing on the evolution of sex chromosomes in plants.

Effective management and analysis of genotypic, phenotypic, and environmental data generated by plant breeding initiatives are crucial for informed decision-making. However, many existing repository solutions may not meet the specific project requirements, forcing individuals to rely on Excel files for data storage, despite Excel not being an ideal option. Using such data files may lead to errors and complicated processing. To prevent such issues, we have developed an approach that utilizes Excel templates to store project data. These templates adhere to existing standards such as MCPD or MIAPPE but are also flexible enough to incorporate project-specific information. Additionally, we have developed a validation process using the Frictionless library, which was implemented in the EU AGENT project, to help data providers meet all template requirements. Our approach links accessions from a project to a shared database of known accessions with passport data using a unique identifier. This accession database is also stored in a standardized and Frictionless validated Excel file. This process of linking accessions from a project file to this database can often largely be automated. Validated and linked Excel files can be seamlessly imported into an existing repository system such as Germinate , which also offers a BrAPI endpoint for accessing and analysing the data. This enables easy updating of published data whenever new project data becomes available. Overall, our approach provides a straightforward yet effective way of managing data from different plant breeding experiments and projects while adhering to the FAIR principles.

With the increasing expansion of large-scale forest plantations in developing countries, concerns are rising about relationships between plantations and local communities. Community participation in forest plantation management can improve relationships between forestry companies and adjacent communities and affect the distribution of benefits from plantations. The social dimension of the Forest Stewardship Council's (FSC) responsible forest management standard targets the participation of local communities in plantation management. Using household survey data from villages adjacent to plantations owned by two private forest companies in Mozambique, we assess households' perceptions about their participation in plantations' activities. We compare the perspectives of households in villages adjacent to FSC-certified plantations with those of households in villages adjacent to non-certified plantations. Our quantitative analyses show that communities adjacent to the certified plantations are more likely to perceive that they participate in activities of plantations. In terms of socio-economic characteristics, male-headed households and households with plantation employees were more likely than their counterparts to participate in plantations' activities. However, we did not find statistically significant relationships between the perceptions of communities near the certified plantations and those near the non-certified plantations regarding their satisfaction with their participation, the extent to which they consider the plantation a ‘friendly good neighbor’ and whether households have benefitted from the plantations. Our results suggest that market-based approaches of forest governance, such as forest management certification, can complement state policy towards responsible forest management.

As large-scale forest plantations expand in developing countries, concerns are rising about their relation to and integration with adjacent local communities. In developing countries with weak enforcement of property rights, private plantations are more likely than state-owned plantations to involve villagers in plantation's activities in order to secure and guarantee their access to land and labor resources. Certification standards of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and adherence to responsible investment guidelines further strengthen this likelihood by requiring plantations to consult and engage local communities. Using household data from Tanzania, we assess households' experiences with their participation in plantation activities by comparing the experiences of households in villages adjacent to private, FSC-certified plantations with those of households in villages adjacent to a non-certified, state-owned plantation. Our quantitative analyses show that households in the villages adjacent to the private, certified plantations are more likely to report to participate in plantation activities. Our results show that the certified plantations are more likely to respond to community complaints and grievances. We further find that male-headed households and households of plantation employees are more likely than female-headed households and households without plantation employees to participate in plantations' activities. Our results imply that forest management certification can complement state policy approaches of sustainable forest management to enhance community participation in forest management.

Accommodation providers such as hotels, campsites, and holiday villages can use ecolabels to show their green credentials to potential customers. Whereas there is extensive literature on ecolabel adoption in the Hotel and Bed and Breakfast (B & B) sector, no such research exists for other accommodation sectors. In this paper, we present the results of statistical analyses of survey data from firms in the Dutch accommodation sector (including hotels, campsites, and group accommodations) with and without the Green Key ecolabel, which is a third-party certified international label for the tourist and leisure sector. We obtain insights into the motivations for adopting (or not), analyze the characteristics of firms with and without the label, and get an indication of the perceived impact of ecolabel adoption on costs and profits. We find that previously found results for hotels and B & Bs do not always apply to other subsectors of the accommodation sector. We also find that obtaining the label required a limited investment for almost half of the sample, and resulted in cost reductions for more than half of the responding firms.

Funding information Tropenbos International; Forestry Research and Development Agency Indonesia Abstract Using insights from the forest ecology literature, we analyze the effect of injured trees on stand composition and carbon stored in above‐ground biomass and the implications for forest management decisions. Results from a Faustmann model with data for a tropical forest on Kalimantan show that up to 50% of the basal area of the stand before harvest can consist of injured trees. Considering injured trees leads to an increase in the amount of carbon in above‐ground biomass of up to 165%. These effects are larger under reduced impact logging than under conventional logging. The effects on land expectation value and cutting cycle are relatively small. The results suggest that considering injured trees in models for tropical forest management is important for the correct assessment of the potential of financial programs to store carbon and conserve forest ecosystem services in managed tropical forests, such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and payment for ecosystem services.

This paper uses agency theory to analyse the incentives that a donor (principal) and recipient (agent) face as actors in an accountability regime for the financing of international climate change projects in developing countries. We address the following question: What accountability measures serve to align the incentives of the donor with those of the recipient in climate change financing? We focus on the relationship between the Green Climate Fund as a donor and one of its Accredited Entities as a recipient. We examine the consequences of misaligned incentives and asymmetric information, looking at a specific set of accountability measures, including performance indicators, penalties for poor performance, as well as the role of pressure exerted by civil society organisations (CSOs). We find that the use of imperfect performance indicators can reduce the risk of project failure if they are strongly correlated with adaptation and mitigation impacts. Penalties can have a positive impact on project outcomes, but impose risks upon the agent, which could lead him to refuse the contract for the implementation of the climate change project. The pressure of CSOs was found to have the potential to motivate donors and recipients to become more efficient and effective in their delivery of projects but could also lead to the donor choosing to finance lower-risk projects with fewer climate change benefits. We suggest that accountability requirements need to be carefully balanced with other objectives, including having a diverse set of entities willing to bid for the delivery of projects.

Using insights from the forest ecology literature, we analyze the effect of injured trees on stand composition and carbon stored in above-ground biomass and the implications for forest management decisions. Results from a Faustmann model with data for a tropical forest on Kalimantan show that up to 50% of the basal area of the stand before harvest can consist of injured trees. Considering injured trees leads to an increase in the amount of carbon in above-ground biomass of up to 165%. These effects are larger under reduced impact logging than under conventional logging. The effects on land expectation value and cutting cycle are relatively small. The results suggest that considering injured trees in models for tropical forest management is important for the correct assessment of the potential of financial programs to store carbon and conserve forest ecosystem services in managed tropical forests, such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and payment for ecosystem services. Recommendations for Resource Managers Considering the role of injured trees is important for managing tropical forests These trees can cover up to 50% of basal area and contain more than 50% of the carbon stored in above-ground biomass Reduced impact logging leads to a larger basal area of injured trees and more carbon stored in injured trees than conventional logging Injured trees play an important role when assessing the potential for carbon storage in the context of payment for forest ecosystem services.

Climate change is expected to have severe negative impacts on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in developing countries. However, smallholder farmers and governments in these regions tend to be ill-prepared for the impacts of climate change. We present the results of a stakeholder-based multi-criteria analysis of climate change adaptation options for agriculture, natural resource management and water management in the upper Blue-Nile basin in Ethiopia. We use the PROMETHEE II outranking method to analyse data from a survey in which farmers and experts were asked to evaluate adaptation options based on potentially conflicting criteria. Adaptation options for soil and land management, such as crop rotation and composting, score high based on two sets of criteria for assessing adaptation options for agriculture. River diversion, preventing leaching and erosion, and drip irrigation are ranked highest as adaptation options for water management. Regarding natural resource management, the highest ranked adaptation options are afforestation, water retention and maximizing crop yield. Rankings by farmers and by experts are weakly correlated for agriculture and water management, and negatively correlated for natural resource management, which shows the importance of extension services and of involving farmers in the decision-making process to ensure the feasibility of adaptation options.

With the rapid expansion of forest plantations worldwide, communities, NGOs and researchers are increasingly expressing their concerns about the outcomes of plantations' activities for local households. This study investigates the perceptions of local households about forest plantations' investments in social services and local infrastructure in rural Tanzania. We consider households living in villages adjacent to private, FSC certified forest plantations and households in villages adjacent to a state-owned, non-certified plantation. We use survey data from 338 households to analyze perceived changes in school enrolment, quality of education, and the number and quality of health centers, roads and bridges associated with investments by plantations. We use a mixed method approach and complement the results from a logistic regression model with observations of the size and quality of social services and infrastructure in the villages and with findings from focus group discussions. The results show that households in the villages adjacent to both the private, FSC certified and state-owned, non-certified forest plantations associate the plantations with improved social services and local infrastructure in the study villages. Moreover, we find that the private, FSC certified forest plantations are viewed more favorably than the state-owned, non-certified plantation in terms of their contributions to social services and local infrastructure in the study areas. Richer households tend to perceive the investments of the plantations more favorably than poorer households in the study villages.

The ease with which firms can substitute away from energy to other inputs is an important determining factor in the costs of climate change mitigation policies. Climate policy simulation models usually represent this substitutability by using the Constant Elasticity of Substitution (CES) function with parameter values often taken from econometric studies. Hence, the accuracy of the estimated substitution parameters has a strong influence on the validity of the climate policy simulation. In this article, we attempt to replicate the results presented in a widely cited article in this field: Kemfert (1998) (‘Estimated substitution elasticities of a nested CES production function approach for Germany’, Energy Economics, 20, 249–264). We first use the data and software reported in that article and compare our results with those reported in the original study. We then test the same data and a new, more recent, data set on German industrial data with an improved econometric approach. Despite applying various approaches and modifications, we are not able to replicate the results in Kemfert (1998). We furthermore conclude that the data sets that are typically used to estimate nested CES functions often have too few observations and too little independent variation of the explanatory variables to obtain reliable estimates when using a direct non-linear approach.

The share of intermittent renewable electricity (IRE) in the future urban electricity system is expected to increase significantly. Sufficient back-up capacity is needed in the period when IRE output is low. Bioenergy is both dispatchable and carbon-neutral, and can hence be a promising option to back up IRE. The objective of this study is to explore the potential of urban waste biomass in backing up IRE in an urban electricity system. An urban electricity system model is developed to project future electricity generation configurations. Given the projected electricity generation configuration, the potential demand for bioenergy as back-up capacity is estimated by simulating hourly electricity demand and the supply of IRE for a whole year. The estimated potential demand for bioenergy is then compared with the potential supply of bioenergy from the urban waste stream. We apply our model using data for the city of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The complementarity of wind and solar energy is found to reduce the demand for back-up capacity from bioenergy. An extreme weather day with hardly any wind and solar energy supply requires about 2800 tonne waste biomass per day in an emission reduction scenario and 1300 tonne waste biomass per day in a renewable energy quota scenario, respectively. The average daily waste biomass generated in the city is about 1400 tonne. Bioenergy storage as a buffer is found to be necessary due to the monthly fluctuations in both the supply and demand of waste biomass.

In the presence of implementation lags, announced Pigouvian taxation leads to fossil fuel prices that are too low from society’s perspective. This results in excessive emissions and reduced incentives for green innovation. Such effects are compounded by the presence of pre-existing subsidies to fossil fuel use. We show that the intertemporal resource tax path may need to be modified to optimally take into account the perverse incentives from policy lags and pre-existing policies. We find that it might be optimal to subsidize, rather than tax resource extraction at the instant of implementation.

With the rapid expansion of private forest plantations worldwide, their impacts on local development are under scrutiny by NGOs and researchers alike. This study investigates the impacts of private forest plantations on local infrastructure and social services in rural Tanzania. We take a comparative approach involving households living in villages adjacent to private forest plantations and households in villages adjacent to a state-owned plantation. We use survey data from 338 households to analyze their perceptions about the impacts of the plantations on the number and quality of roads, bridges, and health centers, as well as on school enrolment and quality of education. We triangulate the results from a logistic regression model with observations of the size and quality of infrastructure and social services in the villages and with findings from focus group discussions. The results show that the private forest plantations have positively affected local infrastructure and social services in adjacent villages. The results suggest that large-scale private forest plantations can contribute to rural development in developing countries. We highlight the importance of taking into account the perceptions of various groups in society when assessing the sustainability of forestry investments and their impacts on local communities.

We study the potential of tropical multi-age multi-species forests for sequestering carbon in response to financial incentives from REDD+. The use of reduced impact logging techniques (RIL) allows a forest owner to apply for carbon credits whereas the use of conventional logging techniques (CL) does not. This paper is the first to develop a Hartman model with selective cutting in this setting that takes additionality of carbon sequestration explicitly into account. We apply the model using data for Kalimantan, Indonesia. RIL leads to less damages on the residual stand than CL and has lower variable but higher fixed costs. We find that a system of carbon credits through REDD+ has a large potential for carbon storage. Interestingly, awarding carbon credits to carbon stored in end-use wood products does not increase the amount of carbon stored and reduces Land Expectation Value. We also observe that the level of the carbon price at which it becomes optimal not to harvest depends on the interpretation of the steady state model.

This study explores how the impact of large scale plantations and their associated industrial operations can be evaluated. It takes a value chain approach, looking at impacts on suppliers, customers and stakeholders such as communities, local and national government and investors. Whilst there is renewed interest from investors, governments and enterprises in the potential of planted forestry operations in Africa, doubts have been expressed by communities, and environmental and socially orientated NGOs about their impacts. This paper seeks to provide a framework which can be used to examine the impacts of modern plantations in Africa, given that the context can be very different from plantations in temperate regions. An impact logic (theory of change) is developed which sets out the range of activities, stakeholders and intended impacts, based on two cases of investments in sustainable forestry operations in Tanzania and Mozambique. This, a literature review and interviews with stakeholders, guided the development of indicators to assess economic, social and environmental impacts. The extent that a quantitative and qualitative (mixed methods) impact evaluation is possible and the data required to enable such an evaluation are deliberated. An evaluation framework and supporting indicators are proposed and discussed.