Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) exhibit significant motor instability, yet the specific mechanisms remain unclear. This study introduces the "Start-Stop Paradigm" to investigate motor vulnerabilities at critical transition points: task initiation, continuation, and resumption after a break. Participants were 96 children aged 9 to 10 years (48 with ADHD, 48 typically developing; 48 boys, 48 girls). Re-analyzing data from a dart-throwing task, we found that children with ADHD demonstrated greater performance instability, with 12 out of 17 throw-to-throw transitions showing significant sequential dependencies (φ = 0.3-0.5), compared to only 8 in typically developing children. A pronounced "reverse hot hand" effect was observed at the block transition (resumption after a pause) in both groups, but it was more marked in the ADHD group. This indicates that resuming a task after a stop is a particular vulnerability. The Start-Stop Paradigm posits that children with ADHD struggle disproportionately with motor planning and execution at these transitions due to deficits in attention shifting, working memory updating, and motor parameter recalibration. These findings suggest that motor interventions for ADHD should be specifically tailored to stabilize performance at transitions, rather than focusing solely on overall practice volume.

Motor skills are vital for children's physical, psychological, and social development, with deficiencies potentially impacting daily functioning and quality of life. A key factor influencing motor performance is movement-specific reinvestment (conscious attention to and control of movements), studied extensively in adults but less in children due to a lack of validated tools. This study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Persian Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale in 262 children aged 10-12 years. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported a two-factor structure (conscious motor processing and movement self-consciousness), providing evidence of construct validity. The scale scores demonstrated acceptable internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's alpha = .754 for the total scale and .766 and .712 for the respective subscales). No significant gender or age differences were found. The Persian Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale demonstrates strong psychometric properties for assessing children's tendency toward conscious movement control and is suitable for use in research, educational settings, and clinical interventions.

Anticipatory synergy adjustments (ASA) represent a feedforward mechanism by which the central nervous system transiently weakens postural synergies to enable rapid changes in performance variable, embodying the stability-agility tradeoff. This study investigated how temporal constraints and expertise modulate ASA onset time and magnitude during table tennis forehand strokes. Twenty male participants (10 skilled, 10 novice) performed 20 forehand trials in response to fast (5 m/s) and slow (1 m/s) visual stimuli in a coincidence anticipation timing task. Electromyography from 14 muscles and the center of pressure (COP) displacement were recorded. Synergy indices were computed using the uncontrolled manifold hypothesis. Results revealed that stimulus speed did not significantly affect ASA onset time (p = 0.519) or amplitude (p = 0.305). In contrast, skilled players exhibited significantly earlier ASA onset (p < 0.001) and larger magnitude (p = 0.002) than novices. Among skilled players, ASA features positively correlated with postural agility metrics (peak COP velocity and displacement) but not with timing errors. These findings indicate that ASA is shaped primarily by expertise rather than temporal task demands, reflecting refined neuromuscular control strategies that optimize the stability-agility tradeoff for rapid motor performance.

The objective of the present research was to elucidate the quality of life and sports activity of geriatric women aged 65 to 75 who exhibit two cognitive styles: optimistic and pessimistic. It has been conducted with both optimism and pessimism. The current research was semi-experimental in nature, with a pre-test-post-test design, and was applied in terms of purpose. The statistical population of the research included elderly women aged 65 to 75 who resided in Tehran city in 2023. The sample includes 40 elderly individuals who were randomly assigned to four experimental groups based on optimistic and pessimistic cognitive styles and group and individual sports activities. These individuals were selected using the available sampling procedure. The groups were subjected to eight sessions of aerobic exercise and strolling. The pre-test was administered prior to the intervention's implementation, while the post-test was administered subsequent to its conclusion. The World Health Organization quality of life questionnaire form 36 questions (SF-36) and Shearer and Carver optimism questionnaire were administered during the pre-test phase of this study. Subsequently, the groups were subjected to a walking and athletics intervention, and they engaged in aerobics. The data was analyzed using SPSS software version 27 and the composite variance analysis method. The composite variance analysis revealed a significant disparity in the quality of life between the training groups between the pre-test and post-test (P<0.05). Also, the quality of life of the elderly was enhanced in all categories as a result of the group and individual sports intervention. The results indicated that the quality of life of the optimistic groups was superior to that of the pessimistic group during the post-test stage. This investigation demonstrated that the elderly’s health and quality of life are enhanced by engaging in sports activities as a result of lifestyle modifications

Introduction: Aging is generally associated with physiological and psychological changes, and older women often exhibit distinct health trajectories. Cognitive style, which includes distinct patterns of information processing such as optimism and pessimism, is increasingly recognized as a critical determinant of mental and physical health. This systematic review sought to assess the predictive validity of cognitive style on various health outcomes, particularly in the older female population. Methods: Systematic review approach was employed. Major electronic databases were searched from 2010 to the present using combinations of terms related to “cognitive style,” “optimism,” “pessimism,” “older women,” and “health outcomes”. Eligible studies included longitudinal and analytical designs where cognitive style was assessed as an antecedent variable predicting later health. This study provides a qualitative synthesis of findings and does not include any quantitative statistical pooling, due to methodological heterogeneity across studies. Results: Across the reviewed literature, optimism consistently predicted healthier psychological and behavioral outcomes among older adults, particularly older women. Higher optimism was associated with lower depressive and anxiety symptoms, greater psychological well-being, enhanced life satisfaction, more adaptive coping strategies, and better sleep quality. Conversely, pessimism was linked to elevated psychological distress and maladaptive coping. Several studies also highlighted the role of contextual factors such as physical activity, social support, and socioeconomic conditions in shaping cognitive styles in later life. Collectively, these findings suggest that optimism may function as a protective psychological resource promoting healthier aging trajectories. Conclusion: Cognitive style serves as an important and modifiable predictor of health outcomes in older women. The findings strongly suggest that interventions focused on enhancing an optimistic style could be a valuable, non-pharmacological strategy for promoting successful aging in this population group.

This exploratory study investigated the organization of repetitive motor performances by analyzing patterns between consecutive throws (dyadic sequences) in dart-throwing tasks among 96 novice children (48 with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD] and 48 typically developing). Participants performed 1,728 throws across four difficulty levels in two blocks of nine trials each, following a training session. The analysis focused on 17 consecutive throws, examining whether each throw's outcome depended on the previous one ("transitions") and whether performance remained stable over time. Most transitions exhibited random patterns, supporting the "no hot hand" theory, though two transitions showed dependency, including a reverse hot hand effect. Children with ADHD demonstrated less stable performance, meaning that their outcomes fluctuated more over time, with 12 out of 17 transitions being statistically significant, although the practical impact of these numbers indicates only modest, short-term carryover from one throw to the next, compared to eight in typically developing children. A significant group difference was observed only in the transition from the first to the second throw, with ADHD children showing a greater tendency. Task difficulty analysis revealed no notable differences between levels in either group. These findings suggest that dart-throwing performance is not a fully independent or stable process, with ADHD children showing greater instability influenced by previous throws. As this was an exploratory investigation, the results should be interpreted as initial evidence rather than definitive conclusions, highlighting the need for further research into the underlying motor control mechanisms.

Development is a process encompassing all dimensions of human existence, with the primary goal of education being the facilitation of the full development of children's talents. Play and physical activity play a significant role in enhancing children's growth. Indigenous and local games of Iran, deeply rooted in creativity and culture, use minimal resources to maximize sensory-neural stimulation and motor activity, thereby enhancing children's perceptual-motor, cognitive-emotional, and motor skills. This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of indigenous and local games with selected foam tube-based games on the social, cognitive, and motor development of elementary school children. The statistical population of the research included all elementary school students in Raz and Jargalan County. The results of covariance analysis showed that both traditional games and foam tube-based games significantly improved children's motor, social, and cognitive development compared to the control group (P < .05). Additionally, no statistically significant difference was observed between the foam tube-based games and indigenous-local games groups (P > .05). The findings indicate that utilizing either indigenous-local games or foam tube-based games can enhance children's cognitive, motor, and social development, as well as improve their morale, happiness, self-esteem, and overall well-being. This study highlights the importance of these games in educational settings and recommends that educators and teachers incorporate them into their programs. It is also suggested that this approach be used to strengthen children's social, motor, and cognitive growth, thereby fostering a healthier and more optimistic generation and reinforcing the future human capital of the country.

This study aims to examine the evolution of motor behavior research, drawing lessons from past studies and exploring future prospects in the field. A comprehensive narrative review was conducted using a descriptive analysis method. Relevant literature was sourced from key academic databases, focusing on motor learning and performance, motor control and coordination, development of motor skills across the lifespan, rehabilitation, and the neurophysiology of motor behavior. The review incorporated interdisciplinary insights from cognitive science, neuroscience, artificial intelligence, machine learning, biomechanics, and kinesiology to provide a holistic understanding of motor behavior. The review highlights significant advancements in motor behavior research, from early observational studies to contemporary explorations utilizing advanced technologies. Key findings include the identification of neural efficiency in expert performers, the impact of cognitive processes on motor execution, and the role of artificial intelligence in modeling and predicting motor behavior. Methodological advancements have enhanced data collection and analysis through motion capture systems, neuroimaging techniques, and machine learning algorithms. Challenges identified include theoretical limitations in existing frameworks, methodological issues related to measurement and data interpretation, and a lack of research addressing cultural and contextual factors influencing motor behavior. Motor behavior research has evolved substantially, offering valuable insights into human movement and its underlying mechanisms. Future research should focus on developing integrative theoretical models, improving methodological rigor, and embracing interdisciplinary collaboration. Ethical considerations regarding technology use, data privacy, and inclusivity are essential for advancing the field responsibly. Practical applications of this research have significant potential to enhance sports performance, rehabilitation strategies, educational programs, and overall quality of life.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the optimal challenge point for learning motor skills in children with and without attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Ninety-six 9- to 10-year-old children, including 48 children with ADHD and 48 neurotypical children, were randomly assigned to one of four practice groups with varying levels of nominal and functional task difficulty. They performed 63 trials of a dart throwing task in the acquisition phase and 18 trials in the retention and transfer tests a day later. The results showed that neurotypical children outperformed children with ADHD in all phases of the study. Both groups improved in the acquisition phase and performed better in the retention and transfer tests. Interestingly, low nominal task difficulty was associated with better learning for both groups, despite lower average performance for children with ADHD. Thus, despite their performance differences, we did not find a difference in the effective challenge point between children with ADHD and their neurotypical peers.

Introduction: The purpose of present study was to test the effect of contextual interference and self-regulation on the transfer of volleyball services (underhand and windmill service).Methods: Participants were 39 male students (20-25 years old) were randomly assigned to one of three groups (blocked, random and self-regulation) and performed total of 40 trials of volleyball service each session (6 sessions). The blocked group practiced 40 trials of one service each session but the random group randomly practiced both services. In self-regulated group, the type of services in each session was determined by subjects. The transfer test was conducted one week after practice period in 5 trials. In order to analyze the data, the one-way analysis of variance and the Tukey’s post hoc tests were used.Results: The comparison between the pre-test and transfer test showed that the difference between blocked and random groups was not statically significant. The self-regulation group had higher transfer scores compared to blocked and random groups.Conclusion: The results of present work support the contexuual interference affect but it’s not significant. Self-regulated practices involve the subjects in learning processes. Also, with his method, they participate more activity in determining the characteristics of the exercise. These factors lead to the improvement of learning and better performance.

Background: Until now, many researches have shown the effect of quiet eye (QE) training on motor behaviors have been investigated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of QE training on gaze behavior and performance improvement in volleyball service. Methods: Eighteen male students of the University of Tehran with an age mean of 22±2 participated in this study and were randomly divided into two groups of QE and traditional training. This research was conducted in three stages: pre-test, post-test and retention test. At the beginning, a professional volleyball player was asked to perform a number of volleyball services, and the gaze points and their duration were obtained using eye-tracking glasses. In addition, he was filmed from a side view using a camera. In the next stage, at the pre-test, participants in both groups were told to send 10 simple services. At the same time, their gaze points were recorded using eye-tracking glasses. We also used the Russell Long service test (RLST) to evaluate the accuracy of the services. In the acquisition phase, in three sessions, the traditional training group practiced only the service, but the QE training group practiced QE training. In the post-test, their gaze points were recorded again using eye-tracking glasses, and the accuracy of their services was evaluated by RLST. 24 hours later, the same procedure was performed for the retention test. Results: The results showed that QE training group to traditional training increased the duration of the fixation and improved performance in volleyball service at the retention. Conclusion: The results showed that QE training has a positive effect on improving the performance and duration of stabilization period of beginner players and improve their performance in volleyball serve.

Background: Previous research has emphasized the negative impact of early maternal deprivation on learning and memory. On the other hand, the role of training on cognition has been examined. However, whether neonates are given exercise at the same time as being deprived of their mothers is a novelty of this research. We also considered the study of underlying mechanisms, such as the study of changes in BDNF levels. So, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of swimming training on spatial learning, memory and motor function in male rats under early deprivation. Methods: Twenty-eight rats divided into four groups: Early maternal deprivation (EMD), Swimming Training (ST), EMD+ST group, and Control (CON) groups. The rats were exposed to deprivation for 10 days, three days a week for 30 minutes. The rats were at 33 postnatal days and their spatial learning and memory were assessed using the Morris Water Maze (MWM) test. Rats' motor function was assessed by the Open-Field (OF) test. Finally, after the extraction of the hippocampus, BDNF protein was measured by ELISA. Results: The results of this study revealed that male rats exposed to EMD had learning and spatial memory impairments, lower hippocampal BDNF protein levels. In addition, swimming alone has a positive impact on the BDNF protein level and motor function. Conclusions: Despite these findings, due to the high intensity of stress, swimming could not modify the irreparable effects of deprivation.

Abstract Background: Although changes in performance during the learning of various sports skills have been studied, however, how these changes at the brain level is still unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate simultaneous changes in motor performance and EEG patterns in beta band during learning dart throwing skill in dominant and non-dominant hand. Methodology: The samples consisted of 14 non-athlete students with an average age of 23 ± 2.5, which were divided into two group dominant hand (7) and non-dominant hand (7). Repeated measures ANOVA were used to measure data at the execution level and changes in EEG activity. Results: The results of this study at the performance level showed a significant reduction in the absolute error of dart throwing and at the same time at the brain level increased EEG activity in frontal and parietal-posterior regions along with decreased central area activity in acquisition and retention stages in both groups (P<.05). Also, there was a significant difference between the activity of EEG pattern in the dominant and non-dominant hand groups except for two channels AF3 and PO4 (P<.05). Conclusion: In general, the results of this study showed that along with relatively constant changes in performance during dart skill learning, relatively constant changes in EEG activity pattern occur, so that the concept of motor learning is also visible at the brain level. Also, the results of this study supported the existence of the different motor program for dominant and non-dominant hand control in the conditions of bilateral transfer control.

Background:The Arousal is one of the psychological factors affecting athletes' performance.The most important theory of the relationship between arousal and performance is the inverted-U theory.Despite research in this area, more research is needed on the effects of arousal on cognitive and motor activities. Aims:The purpose of the present research is to investigate the effect of arousal caused by spectators on the process and outcome of decision mking and volleyball serve performance skill.Methods: The research method was quasi-experimental and the sampling method was also available randomly.The population of the study is the volleyball players of Iranian youth and student volleyball national team.A number of 29 players (Mean age=19.62 ± 2.243 years) participated in this research.At first, the players filled out the satisfaction form.At first participants performed decision making test.The decision making task of current study was performance of volleyball serve decision making under arousal conditions caused by spectators.Participants performed 25 decision making situations in baseline and spectators arousal conditions.The visual saccade and fixation data recorded by eye tracker system (Ergoneers Dikablis Eye Tracking System) simultaneously with decision making test performance.Data analyzed with paired-samples t-test.Then the participants performed the volleyball serve performance test (Brady volleyball skill test).The instrument used in the study was high frequency camera Sony cyber shot rx100 iv that used to record the players' performance for biomechanical analysis of serve performance.The tracker software was used to analyze the video performance of players' serve skills.The presence of spectators in the test environment was used to create arousal and also the measurement of athletes' heart rate was used to measure arousal.The subjects performed 10 services and their biomechanical factors included; distance to line, serve height, serve distance to line, landing distance to line and ball speed was recorded by camera.To ensure arousal, their heart rates were measured.Results: The results of the serve performance t-test showed that the arousal caused by the spectators has a significant effect on serve height (P=0.033).Also the result indicated that arousal caused by spectators affected the process and outcome of decision making.Conclusion: Although the decision-making speed of the players increased under the circumstances of the arousal, their decision-making accuracy decreased.Given this, coaches need to provide good training tips in training to improve the decisions made by players.In addition to physical exercise, mental training and decision-making should also be done.

Background: The purpose of current study was examining the effect of quiet eye training on performance and kinematics of throwing skill in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) at 6 years of age. Methods: In this semi-experimental study with pretest-posttest design and a 14-day follow-up period, 30 girls of 6 years old with DCD were assigned into two groups of quiet eye training and control. In pre-test phase, participants performed 10 trials of bean bag throwing. Acquisition phase was done in 18 sessions and in each session, 10 trials were done. After finishing the last training session, in post-test phase, and in 2 weeks detraining in retention phase, participants performed 10 trials of bean bag throwing. In each phase, vision information with eye tracker system, kinematic data with high-speed camera, and accuracy were recorded by researcher. Data were analyzed with repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Findings: Quiet eye training had a significant effect on accuracy of throwing, quiet eye period, and throwing kinematics (P < 0.05). Conclusion: The results of the current study emphasize the importance of quiet eye training in improving throwing skill and kinematics of children with DCD, and instructors are advised to use this type of exercise to improve these skills.

The Effect of Motor Dependent/Independent Visual Perception Training on Visual-Motor Integration and Fine Motor Skills of 7-8-year-old Children: The Retest of Movement Hypothesis

Objective: Bilateral coordination skills are one of the key factors in performing simple to skillful sports task, so far the differences between ball and non-ball fields have not been determined. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the differences in asymmetric bilateral coordination between male and female athletes in ballplayers and non-ballplayers. Methods: The samples of this study were randomly selected from the young girls and boys (Mean±SD of age 26.00±4.50) in ball fields (14) and non-ball fields (16) of the Faculty of Physical Education of the University of Tehran. All subjects had complete visual acuity and the consent form of the research. The instrument of Vienna was used to measure peripheral visual. Results: The statistical results of MANOVA test showed that there is significant difference in asymmetrical bilateral coordination between ballplayers and non-ballplayers and girls and boys (P≥0.05). Conclusion: The results of this study showed that asymmetric bilateral coordination performing in ball players had better than non-ball players and girls than boys. According the importance of bimanual coordination skills in the implementation of championship sports, as well as considering gender differences and the positive impact of ball exercises on ball coordination, sports coaches can provide training, especially at a younger age, to facilitate learning of this fundamental skill.

The ability to direct the gaze to optimal areas in the environmental context, at the appropriate time, is central to success in all sports. The aim of this study was to changes determine the elements of QE, during the run a reactivity launcher targeting skill, under different environmental demands. That was done to identify perceptual - cognitive effects performance-based infrastructure processes. Thus, 8 Athletes (22-28 Years old) with at least 5 years’ experience in dart throwing, in a counterbalanced manner performed under four target conditions of constraints environmental. Regulatory conditions (stationary/in motion) and inter-trial variability (present/absent) created four target conditions for reaction. During the run a launcher targeting skill and was continuously recorded characteristics related to gaze behavior in each scenario. In each condition, 10 trails 20 seconds conducted. Gaze behavior using an eye-tracking device Dikablis Professional Wireless model recorded and analyzed using DLab software information processing system and variance (ANOVA) with repeated measures. Results showed that there was significant between averages QE in four different environmental contexts (P≤0.001). The fastest QE onset was observed stationary – no inter-trial variability and QE offset and QE period belonged

DOI: 10.29252/jorjanibiomedj.9.3.4 Abstract Background and Objective: Human development is influenced by genetic, environmental, and social factors whose foundation is formed from infancy and childhood. Preterm birth and low birth weight are important issues that can affect the development and threaten the public health. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of early exercise interventions on gross motor skills of children with preterm birth aged 3 to 6 years.