Climate change is intensifying hydroclimatic extremes worldwide, posing increasing challenges for ecologically sensitive regions. Kenya’s Tsavo Conservation Area (TCA) characterized by a bimodal rainfall regime is particularly vulnerable to recurrent droughts and prolonged wet conditions. This study develops a Random Forest (RF) classification framework to classify drought and wet conditions in the Tsavo Conservation Area. The framework integrates the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) and elevation to capture meteorological, ecological and topographic influences. SPI and VCI were derived from daily CHIRPS v2.0 precipitation data and MODIS products, representing hydrological and vegetation responses to moisture variability. Drought and wet extremes classes were generated using SPI- and VCI-based thresholds and used as target labels for RF classification. The RF framework was then applied to classify annual drought and wet conditions across the TCA for the period 2000-2024, achieving a macro-average F1-score of 0.998 and a Cohen’s Kappa coefficient of 0.996, demonstrating high reliability of drought and wet extremes classifications. The results reveal interannual spatial variability, highlighting pronounced drought in 2003, 2005, and 2007, as well as distinct wet conditions in 2006, 2018-2020 and 2023. Furthermore, the increasing temperature trend indicates rising moisture stress (0.04 °C per year). Consecutive Dry Days (CDD) and Consecutive Wet Days (CWD) provide supporting evidence for the observed variability in drought and wet conditions. However, ground-based validation data for wet conditions remain limited. Integrating multi-source indicators within a machine-learning framework, this study demonstrates a practical approach for drought-wet extremes classification in conservation landscapes. The findings underscore the relevance of data-driven climate risk assessment tools for supporting early warning systems and climate-resilient land-use planning in protected areas. Graphical abstract summarizes the overall study workflow. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI-12) and annual Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) were derived from CHIRPS v2.0 precipitation and MODIS vegetation indices respectively, with CHIRPS v2.0 validated against ground-based rainfall observations. Consecutive Dry Days (CDD) and Consecutive Wet Days (CWD) were computed across the Tsavo Conservation Area. Furthermore, precipitation and temperature trends were calculated using CHIRPS v2.0 and ERA5 reanalysis data. Random Forest classification framework was applied to classify drought and wet conditions using SPI, VCI and Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data as input variables. The results show major drought years (2003, 2005 and 2007) and wet years (2006, 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2023). Overall, the Random Forest classification framework provides a practical approach for characterizing the spatial and temporal variability of drought and wet extremes in the Tsavo Conservation Area, Kenya. These findings have important implications for land-use planning, water resource management, and human-wildlife conflict mitigation. Developed a Random Forest drought and wet conditions classification framework integrating SPI, VCI and topography. Applied the framework to classify drought and wet conditions in the Tsavo Conservation Area, Kenya (2000-2024). Results highlight spatial and temporal variability in drought and wet conditions relevant to climate-risk assessment in protected areas.

Giraffe (Giraffa spp.) are among the most unique and charismatic extant animals, largely due to their distinct morphology. The evolutionary and developmental origin of ossicones is a key factor in giraffid biology, yet other features building their characteristic head physiognomy remain poorly studied. Here, we analysed the cranial diversity of extant Giraffa using a continent-wide sample with a balanced sex ratio and ontogenetic growth series, using shape analysis (3D geometric morphometrics). Detailed comparisons showed significant differences in cranial morphology across the four Giraffa species, and in some cases also between subspecies of the same species. The analyses revealed that females reach adult cranial form at an earlier age (around 4 years old), while males continue growing until the eighth year, aligning with the onset of sexual maturity for each of the sexes. Multivariate methods unambiguously prompt significant covariation between skull parts. Such high covariation patterns indicate that Giraffa skull morphology largely evolves as a whole (i.e., morphologically integrated), even though parts of it (such as the ossicones) develop in different magnitudes. Considering their role in territorial and mating behaviours, we suggest that ossicone morphology influences the parapatric evolution of Giraffa through sexual selection. Palaeontological evidence shows that development of larger ossicones is a relatively recent trait for members of the genus Giraffa, with the cranial morphology of the southern giraffe (Giraffa giraffa) being the closest to that of the ancestral forms, possibly through plesiomorphy or paedomorphosis.

ABSTRACT Massive infrastructure development impacts ecologically important, culturally iconic, and economically vital populations of megaherbivores in East Africa. The seven member countries of the East African Community (EAC) have multiple hypercomplex road, rail, and port projects planned that will cross essential habitats for elephant, giraffe, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus populations, all but one of which range from threatened to critically endangered in global extinction risk status. Within the EAC, concerns have been raised about effective and efficient development mitigation and shared biodiversity conservation governance. Scalable solutions have been demonstrated in some EAC countries, but there is a vital need for regional policy. The acute challenge of megaherbivore conservation amid mega‐infrastructure development in East Africa can best be addressed with the fulfillment of an EAC wildlife sector coordinating unit.

AbstractGiraffe populations have declined by around 40% in the last three decades. Climate change, poaching, habitat loss, and increasing human pressures are confining giraffes to smaller and more isolated patches of habitats. Masai giraffes (Giraffa tippelskirchi) have been subjected to habitat loss and fragmentation, diseases, poaching, and unpredictable calamities such as wildfires and climate change. In this study, we aimed to identify (1) suitable Masai giraffe habitats within the transboundary landscape of Tsavo‐Mkomazi in Southern Kenya and Northern Tanzania; and (2) key connecting corridors in a multiple‐use landscape for conservation prioritization. We combined Masai giraffe presence data collected through a total aerial survey with moderate resolution satellite data to model habitat suitability at 250 m resolution using species distribution models (SDMs) implemented in Google Earth Engine (GEE). Model accuracy was assessed using area under precision recall curve (AUC‐PR). We then used the habitat suitability index as a resistance surface to model functional connectivity using Circuitscape theory and cost‐weighted distance pairwise methods. Human habitat modification, rainfall, and elevation were the main model predictors of Masai giraffe habitat and corridors. On average, our 10‐fold model fitting attained a good predictive performance with an average AUC‐PR = 0.80 (SD = 0.01, range = 0.79–0.83). The model predicted an area of 15,002 km2as potential suitable Masai giraffe habitat with over 17% outside protected areas within the landscape. Although Tsavo West National Park formed a key habitat and a key connecting corridor, nonprotected community ranches connecting Tsavo West and Tsavo East National Parks are equally important in maintaining landscape connectivity joining more than two Masai giraffe core areas with low resistance and high permeability. To maintain critical Masai giraffe's habitats and landscape functional connectivity, especially in multiple‐use landscapes, conservation‐compatible land use practices, capacity building, and land use planning should be considered at the outset of any new infrastructure development and land use changes. This modeling shows the potential of utilizing remotely sensed information and ground surveys to guide the management of habitats and their connecting corridors across important African landscapes, complementing existing efforts to identify, conserve, and protect wildlife habitats and their linkage zones.

Predation can have cascading, regulatory effects across ecological communities. Knowledge of the diet of predators can therefore provide important information regarding their ecology and conservation, as well as their impacts on prey populations. Using scats collected during 2019–2023 and estimates of prey abundance from aerial surveys, we characterized prey consumption and preferences of the Vulnerable African lion Panthera leo population in Tsavo, Kenya. Biomass models applied to prey frequencies in scats revealed that > 85% of lion diet comprised large ungulates weighing > 150 kg. The Critically Endangered hirola Beatragus hunteri and Endangered Grevy's zebra Equus grevyi (species that were introduced in Tsavo as part of ex situ conservation programmes in the 1960s) were amongst the seven prey species, of 16 detected, that were preferred by lions. Our results potentially indicate a disproportionate impact of lion predation on the small hirola and Grevy's zebra populations. Preferential predation, coupled with high availability of alternative prey, may trap the small populations of hirola and Grevy's zebra within a predator pit. Our findings provide a better understanding of lion diet, optimal foraging and the potential effects predators can have on threatened and rare prey species in an important conservation landscape. Based on our findings, we recommend an observational study of the predation ecology of lions and other predators in this system, to provide information on age- and sex-specific predation rates on hirola and Grevy's zebra for a population viability analysis, to support the management of these two threatened and rare herbivores in Tsavo.

Natural ecosystems provide beneficial goods and services to adjacent communities. However, these benefits also come with societal risks, among them wildfires. Kenyan ecosystems have faced increased wildfire risk due to human activities and a warming earth that causes dangerous fire weather conditions. Mount Kenya is one such ecosystem that experiences annual fires; however, there is limited information on the level of knowledge or preparedness of the local community towards wildfires and fire management across the entire ecosystem. Here, we used questionnaires and interviews to randomly and purposively survey 55 respondents across 11 villages that surround Mt Kenya forest, majority of whom were Community Forest Association (CFA) members. We investigated the perceived extent to which the communities contribute to wildfires; their opinions on some aspects of fire management; and what individual and collective actions are required to improve fire preparedness. The most perceived causes of wildfires were honey harvesting (56

Animals respond to habitat alteration with changes in their behavior and physiology. These changes determine individual performance and thus precede changes in population size. They are therefore hypothesized to provide important insights into how animals cope with environmental change. Here, we investigated physiological and behavioral responses of a cooperatively breeding bird, the placid greenbul (Phyllastrephus placidus), in a severely fragmented tropical biodiversity hotspot and combined these data with remotely sensed (LiDAR) environmental data. We found that individuals had increased glucocorticoid hormone levels when breeding in territories with low native canopy cover or located within small fragments. However, when breeding with the help of subordinates, breeders in low quality territories had similar glucocorticoid levels as those in higher quality territories. Our study shows that sociality may impact how well animals cope with environmental change and contributes to our understanding of the role of glucocorticoid physiology and behavior in response to anthropogenic change.

Giraffe (Giraffa spp.) are among the most unique extant mammals in terms of anatomy, phylogeny, and ecology. However, aspects of their evolution, ontogeny, and taxonomy are unresolved, retaining lingering questions that are pivotal for their conservation. We assembled the largest known dataset of Giraffa skulls (n = 515) to investigate patterns of cranial variability using 3D geometric morphometrics. The results show distinct sexual dimorphism and divergent ontogenetic trajectories of skull shape for the north clade (G. camelopardalis antiquorum, G. c. camelopardalis, G. c. peralta, and G. reticulata) and the south clade (G. giraffa angolensis, G. g. giraffa, G. tippelskirchi tippelskirchi, and G. t. thornicrofti) which was further supported statistically. Discriminant functions found statistically significant cranial shape differences between all four Giraffa species, and in some cases also between subspecies of the same species. Our 3D morphometric analysis shows that the four genetically distinct Giraffa spp. also have distinct cranial morphologies, largely addressable to features of display (ossicones). Our results highlight the importance of focusing future giraffe conservation efforts on each taxon to maintain their unique characteristics and biodiversity in the wild.

AbstractHuman–elephant conflict is growing in Africa as human populations and development increases, creating disturbance to elephant habitats. Beehive fences have been trialed as a coexistence tool with some success but all studies have looked at small sample sizes over a short time period. Our study analyses the behavior of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) that approached a network of beehive fence protected farms in two conflict villages over 9 years next to Tsavo East National Park. We compare differences in elephant raids and beehive occupation rates annually, during a drought, and during peak crop production seasons. Out of 3999 elephants approaching our study farms 1007 elephants broke the beehive fence and entered the protected farm areas (25.18%). This was significantly less than the 2649 encounters where elephants remained either outside the farm boundary or broke into the control farms (66.24%). A further 343 elephants entered the farm by walking through a gap at the end of a fence (8.56%). The annual beehive fence break‐through rates averaged 23.96% (±SE 3.15) resulting in a mean of 76.04% elephants deterred from beehive fences protected farm plots. Over six peak crop growing seasons the beehive fences kept between 78.3% and 86.3% of elephants out of the farms and crops. The beehive fences produced one ton of honey sold for $2250; however, a drought caused a 75% reduction in hive occupation rates and honey production for 3 years after negatively impacting honey profits and the effectiveness of the fences. Beehive fences are very effective at reducing up to 86.3% of elephant crop‐raids during peak crop seasons after good rainfall, but any increase in elephant habitat disturbance or the frequency and duration of droughts could reduce their effectiveness as a successful coexistence tool.

Predation by mammalian carnivores can have cascading, regulatory effects across ecological communities. An understanding of predator diet can therefore provide crucial information regarding their ecology and conservation, as well as their impacts on prey populations. Using scats collected between 2019 and 2023, coupled with estimates of prey abundance from aerial surveys, we characterized lion prey-consumption and preference in Tsavo, Kenya. A lion-specific biomass model applied to prey frequencies in scats revealed that more than 85% of lion diet consisted of large ungulates weighing over 150 kg. While large ungulates were also preferred prey items in terms of their availability, we found a disproportionately high consumption and preference of lions for the endangered hirola and Grevy’s zebra— species that were introduced in Tsavo as part of ex-situ conservation programs. Hirola and Grevy’s zebra populations have historically remained small in Tsavo despite strong recovery efforts, and our results likely indicate a disproportionate impact of lion predation on these small but crucial populations. Preferential predation, coupled with high availability of alternative prey, may trap hirola and Grevy’s zebra within a predator-pit . Our findings have strong implications for understanding lion diet, optimal foraging, and the potential effects predators have on endangered prey species in a landscape of critical conservation importance.

Wildlife managers and policymakers rely on regular and reliable population estimates of large carnivores to guide their conservation decisions and interventions. Although species such as tigers, snow leopards, and jaguars are routinely monitored using advanced approaches, African lions have typically been monitored with unreliable techniques. As a result, our understanding of lion population dynamics is limited, hindering strategic planning and adaptive management. To remedy this, Kenya aimed to identify a robust monitoring framework and implement a national census of lions (Kenya Large Carnivore Taskforce 2009). In Kenya's Maasai Mara, Elliot and Gopalaswamy (2017) demonstrated how to apply a search-encounterbased spatially explicit capture–recapture (SE-SECR) framework to reliably estimate lion density. Heeding their call for a unified framework to assess lion numbers in key populations, a multi-agency team applied this method in Lake Nakuru National Park (LNNP), and published their findings in Conservation Science and Practice (Elliot et al. 2020). This work had important conservation impacts: (1) it altered the management of lions in LNNP, since previous perceptions of “too many lions” were replaced with scientific evidence of a small population, (2) it catalyzed the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) to adopt SE-SECR to estimate lion density across potential source populations, (3) it prompted the formation of a multi-agency technical team to guide the national census and (4) it led to training of personnel in robust monitoring techniques. Having resolved to rigorously estimate lion density within source populations, the technical team adopted the recommendations emanating from Gopalaswamy et al. (2019), also published in Conservation Science and Practice, by switching focus to habitat occupancy at larger scales. Between 2018 and 2020, SE-SECR surveys were conducted within ten of Kenya's most important source populations of lions. At a national scale, detectionnondetection data were collected and analyzed using occupancy models to predict the distribution of lions and Received: 27 June 2022 Revised: 2 November 2022 Accepted: 7 December 2022

Resource specific competition between predators has typically been studied from their interactions at meso-herbivore carcasses, because such carcasses are abundant. Mega-carcasses like those of elephants are rare but unparalleled in the extent of carrion biomass they offer and the long durations they can persist. These rare resource bonanzas can thus provide unique opportunities to understand sympatric species interactions within likely relaxed competitive scenarios. Using remote cameras that were operational 24-h a day, we monitored two elephant carcasses in Tsavo, Kenya, from when they were discovered until they were completely consumed or became inaccessible. While we found high temporal overlaps in activity patterns between all predators, the terrestrial predator guild (lion/leopard/spotted hyena) was not observed to feed simultaneously, suggesting strong interference competition. Based on photo-analysis and video-evidence of exclusion from a carcass, interference competition within the terrestrial predator guild favored lions over hyenas, and hyenas over leopards. The carcass at the terrestrial-aquatic interface showed more simultaneous feeding bouts between predators (crocodile/spotted hyena), indicating either facilitation and/or higher coexistence between predators that typically occupy different niches. We also observed a hippopotamus scavenging from an elephant carcass, thereby documenting a rare instance of a megaherbivore feeding on a megaherbivore. Our results highlight the importance of monitoring such carcasses through remote cameras, which can significantly add to our existing understanding of food webs and carrion ecology.

Rail and road infrastructure is essential for economic growth and development but can cause a gradual loss in biodiversity and degradation of ecosystem function and services. We assessed the influence of underpass dimensions, fencing, proximity to water and roads, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), presence of other species and livestock on underpass use by large and medium-sized mammals. Results revealed hyenas and leopards used the underpasses more than expected whereas giraffes and antelopes used the underpasses less than expected. Generalized linear mixed-effects models revealed that underpass height influenced use by wildlife, with several species preferring to use taller underpasses. Electric fencing increased underpass use by funneling species towards underpasses, except for elephants and black-backed jackal for which it reduced underpass passage. We also found that the use of underpasses by livestock reduced the probability of use by nearly 50% for wildlife species. Carnivore species were more likely to cross underpasses used by their prey. Buffalo, livestock, and hyenas used underpasses characterized by vegetation with higher NDVI and near water sources while baboons, dik-diks and antelope avoided underpasses with high NDVI. Our findings suggest a need for diverse and comprehensive approaches for mitigating the negative impacts of rail on African wildlife.

Translocation of elephants is used to mitigate human-elephant conflict in Asia and Africa. However, few studies investigate how translocations affect the movements and social behaviour of individuals following their release, which may have important implications for whether translocated animals survive and succeed. Using GPS-tracking data, we explored movements of five translocated bull elephants (Loxodonta africana) moved to Tsavo, Kenya, and compared them with five resident bull elephants. Position data was collected hourly for 1 year (March 2018-March 2019), and analysed to investigate home range, displacement rates, problematic behaviour and group size. Of the five translocated elephants, three were illegally killed and one continued to break fences and raid crops. Only one elephant stayed away from human settlement. We found group size and composition to be significantly different, with translocated elephants observed in smaller groups with no female elephant interactions. All elephants showed variation in home ranges and displacement rates, but differences were not significant between resident and translocated elephant groups. For future translocations, we recommend careful consideration of elephant social systems, elephant age, timing, release site and proximity to human settlements that might create human-elephant conflict. This will improve chance for success of such high-stake and expensive translocations.

Wildlife crossing structures are effective interventions for mitigating fragmentation of habitats by linear infrastructure. The 2017 construction of a new railway cutting through the Tsavo Conservation Area (TCA), home to the largest elephant population in Kenya, affected wildlife movement and habitat connectivity. Although numerous studies have investigated the use of wildlife crossing structures by a wide range of species, few have focused on their use by megaherbivores. In this study, we examined use of 41 wildlife crossing structures by African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) along a 133 km section of new railway in Tsavo, Kenya. We used a generalized linear mixed modeling approach to assess the relationship between elephant crossing rate over 28 months between July 2017 to April 2021 and explanatory factors including crossing structure attributes, livestock presence and proximity to highways, water points and human settlement. We found that structural attributes of crossing structures were most strongly associated with the elephant crossing rate, particularly height and its interaction with type of crossing structure (bridges, wildlife underpasses and culverts). Higher crossing structures were associated with higher crossing rate, with the largest influence of height at culverts and wildlife underpasses. Although bridges comprised only 19.5 % of the 41 available crossing structures, they accounted for a disproportionately high number of elephants crossing events (56 %). The results demonstrated the importance of bridges over designated crossing structures for elephants, with predicted seasonal counts of elephant crossings being 0.31 for average sized culverts, 2.88 for wildlife underpasses and 5.86 for bridges. The environmental and anthropogenic variables were not strongly associated with elephant crossing rate. Our findings have direct application for future siting and design of crossing structures across elephant ranges.

Harnessing human capital and converting it into useful industrial processes can best be realized through competent management systems. However, without significant commitment from the upper management as espoused in the Gemba Kaizen principles, strategies to improve employee performance may fall short of their objectives. Gemba Kaizen principles have been adopted in several private and public sector organizations globally, and the upper management commitment principle is being subsequently practiced in the organizations. However, the influence of the application of the Gemba Kaizen upper management commitment principle on employee performance has not received significant research attention previously. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the application of GembaKaizen’supper management commitment principle on employee performance in Kenya Wildlife Service, Tsavo East National Park, Kenya. The study adopted a descriptive research design targeting employees of Kenya Wildlife Service, Tsavo East National Park. Data collected through pre-tested copies of questionnaire from 202 respondentsrevealed that the Gemba Kaizenupper management commitment principlesignificantly influenced employee performance in the Kenya Wildlife Service. There was a significant linear relationship between the Kaizen Principle of upper management commitment and employees’ understanding the contribution of their role in performance of the organization. Employees increase their outputs if the top management is committed by communicating the importance of meeting regulatory requirements, establishing the quality policy, ensuring that quality objectives areestablished, conducting management reviews and ensuring the availability of resources. It is, therefore, recommended that the upper management in the Kenya Wildlife Service begin inculcating the need for team effort and customer satisfaction among employees forthe achievement of organizational objectives. Keywords: Gemba Kaizen, Upper management commitment, Employee performance, Customer satisfaction

Roadkill is one of the highest causes of wildlife mortality and is of global conservation concern. Most roadkill studies have focused on wildlife in developed countries such as the United States of America and temperate biomes, but there are limited data for the impacts of roads on wildlife in the African tropics, where road infrastructure development is projected to grow rapidly in natural environments and conservation areas. The Tsavo Conservation Area is an important biodiversity hotspot in eastern Kenya and is bisected by a major highway and railways that connect the port of Mombasa to the interior. Along this infrastructure corridor, roadkill was recorded for 164 days over an 11-year period (2007?2018). In total, 1,436 roadkill were recorded from 13,008 km driven of a 164.42 km Nairobi-Mombasa road representing 0.11 collisions per kilometer. The majority of roadkill were small to medium sized mammals (<15kg) (53%; n = 756), whereas birds comprised 32% (n = 460), reptiles 10% (n = 143), with the remaining 5% (n = 77) being large mammals (>15kg). Of the 460 birds recorded, 264 were identifiable represented by 62 species. All large mammals comprising 10 species were identified, including the African elephant, Loxodonta africana and the endangered African wild dog, Lycaon pictus. Thirteen species of small mammal were also identified dominated by Kirk's dik-dik (Madoqua kirkii). Reptiles were represented by 11 species which were identified to the species level. Roadkill hotspots were identified using a kernel density method. The spatial distribution of roadkill was associated with adjacent shrub vegetation and proximity to permanent and seasonal rivers, and differences in seasonality and habitats were observed. Roadkill was lowest on road sections that traversed settled areas as opposed to roads adjacent to the protected areas. The results demonstrate that roadkill for two of the taxonomic groups - mammals and birds - appear high with numerous species detected in the Tsavo Conservation Area. These results can be used to focus efforts to reduce wildlife mortality by guiding future mitigation efforts.

Transportation networks can be a major impediment to wildlife movements. We assessed the use of wildlife underpasses and culverts along a newly constructed railway in Kenya's Tsavo National Parks by African elephants (L. africana). We collared ten elephants with GPS satellite transmitters within 20 km of the railway in March 2016 and analysed their movement data to March 2019. Eight elephants used the underpasses although one did not cross the adjacent highway. The remaining two neither used the underpasses nor crossed the highway despite ranging in the vicinity. Their median speed significantly increased to 0.65 km/hr from 0.45 km/hr before crossing the railway, then slowed to 0.32 km/hr after crossing. Females in family groups moved faster than the lone bulls when using the underpasses. Seventy-eight per cent of all crossings made were at night. The fast speeds and the nocturnal patterns are behavioural responses of elephants in risky landscapes or under stress. Disturbance from vehicles traffic on the adjacent highway and from newly developed human settlements may have limited use of underpasses. Wildlife crossing structures, signage and speed bumps along the highway; relocation of the illegal human settlements; and inter-agency coordination are requisites for enhancing Tsavos' elephant habitat connectivity.

This management piece documents the outcome of an elephant translocation from Isiolo to Tsavo East National Park, Kenya in November 2021. The translocation aimed to reduce human-elephant conflict in the area and to prevent any retaliation toward the elephants. This was achieved by removing the ‘problem elephant group’, however the aim of resettling the elephants in Tsavo was not achieved, as the group fragmented and some swiftly moved far outside release site. Two elephants, which we were able to monitor through satellite collars, exhibited homing behaviour and both left Tsavo East National Park within 1-7 weeks of being released. If translocation continues to be the method of choice for problem elephants, there is a need for thorough planning and sound science to inform future operations, which should include collaring of each individual. Trained personnel and substantial budgeting for post release monitoring, and any potential conflict-reduction interventions, are therefore key management considerations for ensuring the health and wellbeing of translocated elephants in the future. In the long-term, focusing mitigation management on a larger number of habitual crop-raiders will have more impact and be a more effective approach for elephant managers. This could involve better spatial land-use planning, maintenance of corridors between protected areas, negative conditioning tactics and maintenance and upgrading of barriers. Ce document relatif à la gestion des éléphants rend compte du bilan de la translocation de plusieurs sujets depuis Isiolo jusqu’au parc national de Tsavo Est au Kenya en novembre 2021. L’objectif était de réduire les conflits humains-éléphants dans la zone et d’éviter toute forme de représailles de la part des habitants. Les « éléphants problématiques » ont donc été délocalisés, mais l’ambition initiale de les établir dans Tsavo Est n’a pu être finalisée du fait de la fragmentation du groupe après la remise en liberté et de certains éléments s’étant rapidement déplacés loin du site de lâcher. Deux sujets, que nous avons pu suivre grâce à leur collier GPS, ont montré un comportement instinctif de retour vers leur habitat précédent et tous deux ont quitté le parc national de Tsavo Est dans les sept semaines suivant leur introduction. Si la méthode de la translocation continue d’être privilégiée pour les éléphants problématiques, il sera nécessaire de s’appuyer sur une planification rigoureuse et des données scientifiques solides pour les prochaines opérations, ainsi que sur la mise en place de colliers émetteurs sur chacun des individus. Du personnel formé et un budget substantiel, pour la post-introduction des animaux et les interventions potentielles de réduction des conflits, sont donc les clefs pour une gestion de qualité et pour assurer le bien-être et la bonne santé des éléphants transférés à l’avenir. À long terme, il convient d’accentuer les interventions d’atténuation envers un plus grand nombre d’éléphants habitués à piller les cultures, afin d’avoir un réel impact et une approche plus efficace pour les personnes chargées de leur gestion. Cela peut se traduire par une meilleure planification de l’usage des terres, l’entretien des couloirs biologiques entre les zones protégées, des tactiques de conditionnement négatif et la maintenance ou l’amélioration des barrières.

Total Quality Management has emerged as a promising quality and performance approach that could meet or exceed customer expectations. However, scholars have noted that for efficacy, TQM must be supported by other principles, such as, the Gemba Kaizen‘s principles. Previous studies have, however, not tied the Gemba Kaizen Strategic principles to TQM and ultimately to employee performance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the application of Kaizen‘s TQM principle on employee performance. The study adopted a descriptive research design targeting employees of Kenya wildlife Service, Tsavo East National Park. Using pre-tested copies of questionnaire to collect data from 278 respondents, the study established that Gemba Kaizen principles applied to TQM had a significant bearing on employee performance. It is, therefore, recommended that employees at Tsavo East National Park need to be enlightened on the concept of continuous and gradual development as outlined by both the Kaizen and TQM principles. Keywords: Total Quality Management, Employee performance, Gemba Kaizen‘s Principle, Quality improvement, Kenya Wildlife Service