The black twig borer (BTB) Xylosandrus compactus is a highly invasive ambrosia beetle that infests a wide range of living woody hosts. It was first detected in Israel in 2020, and since has caused substantial damage, particularly to ornamental trees in the Western Galilee. This study examined its distribution, host range, seasonal activity, reproductive success, and potential control measures. Field surveys conducted during 2022–2025 across Western and Upper Galilee documented infestation symptoms and confirmed reproduction through the presence of developmental stages within galleries. An observation plot including seven susceptible tree species was monitored from September 2023 to November 2025. Control strategies included canopy applications of Beauveria bassiana – based formulation and trunk injections of emamectin benzoate. Additionally, 21 commercial fungicides were evaluated in vitro against the beetle’s symbiotic fungi ( Ambrosiella xylebori, Thyridium lauri, and Fusarium solani suspected as such). Results indicate that BTB likely entered Israel from southern Lebanon around 2019 and spread ~30 km southward by 2023, followed by a marked population decline in 2024–2025. Infestation peaked during late summer and autumn, with minimal activity in winter. Among 22 recorded host species, approximately two-thirds were native Mediterranean shrubs and small trees. About 37% of the overall sampled twigs contained viable brood, whereas Cercis siliquastrum exhibited the highest infestation levels. Neither of the tested formulations demonstrated clear efficacy in managing BTB symptoms under field conditions at two locations. Only a few fungicides showed strong inhibitory effects on symbiotic fungi at low concentrations. The observed population decline could not be explained by host resistance, natural enemies, or abiotic factors. We propose that disruption of fungal symbionts by competing microorganisms may impair larval development, while dispersal of uncontaminated females may enable renewed outbreaks. These findings highlight the complexity of BTB population dynamics and the limited effectiveness of current control measures.

Muskmelon (Cucumis melo) is a widely cultivated and economically important fruit crop that is severely affected by Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. melonis (race 1.2) (Fom). Conventional management practices have shown limited effectiveness and pose environmental and health risks; therefore, sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives are required to manage this disease. In the present study, 23 endophytic fungal isolates belonging to eight genera were isolated from Ecballium elaterium and screened to determine antifungal potential against Fom using an in vitro antagonistic assay. Two endophytic isolates (Fusarium sp. EeR4 and Fusarium clavum EeR24) exhibited an inhibitory effect against Fom on quarter-strength PDA plates. In growth chamber experiments, F. clavum EeR24-colonized melon seedlings and significantly protected plants from wilting compared to non-colonized pathogen-challenged seedlings. Under greenhouse conditions, F. clavum EeR24 significantly improved morphological and physiological traits, including plant height, weight, number of leaves, membrane stability, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration, in Cucumis melo. Endophytic colonization improved catalase (56%), guaiacol peroxide (47%), and superoxide dismutase activity (25%), and increased flavonoid and phenolic content by 11-59% compared to non-colonized Fom-challenged plants. Lipid peroxidation significantly decreased by 37% and proline accumulation increased by 70% in colonized plants compared to non-colonized plants. Histochemical analysis also indicated that endophytic colonization considerably reduced the levels of H2O2, O2-, malondialdehyde, and cell mortality in Fom-challenged plants. In addition, the culture filtrate and organic residues of F. clavum EeR24 inhibited the mycelial growth of Fom by 52-58%, respectively. Furthermore, a study on spatial colonization of the endophyte and the pathogen using GFP and RFP tagging indicated that both the endophyte and the pathogen simultaneously colonized the root tissues of C. melo; however, the endophyte significantly reduced the pathogenicity of Fom. These results suggest that endophytic F. clavum EeR24 may be developed as an effective biocontrol agent for the management of Fusarium wilt in melon plants under field conditions.

Fusarium wilt of banana, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense race TR4 (Foc), is one of the most destructive diseases threatening global banana production, particularly the Cavendish cultivar. Conventional control strategies, including chemical treatments and quarantine, remain largely ineffective and unsustainable, underscoring the urgent need for alternative approaches. Biological control using rhizosphere-associated microorganisms offers a promising and environmentally friendly strategy. In this study, we isolated 436 bacterial strains from the rhizosphere of healthy banana plants and screened them for antifungal activity against Foc. Out of the screened isolates, 93 exhibited significant in-vitro inhibitions, and 64 of these were subsequently evaluated in greenhouse assays. We found that 22 strains reduced Fusarium wilt severity by 45 to 85% compared to untreated controls. Among them, two isolates, DDC20 and DDC\_NEW2, consistently demonstrated strong biocontrol activity. In addition, cell-free culture media (CFCM) and crude extracts inhibited spore germination in fluorescence-based assays, indicating the involvement of secreted antifungal metabolites. Microscopy and confocal observations of GFP tagged Foc revealed hyphal abnormalities in the presence of bacterial treatments, including swelling, irregular branching, and distortion, accompanied by excessive sporulation characterized by abundant microconidia, macroconidia, and chlamydospores. Whole-genome sequencing and comparative analyses placed both isolates within the genus Bacillus. Genome mining using antiSMASH identified multiple biosynthetic gene clusters encoding known antifungal compounds such as surfactin, fengycin, bacillibactin, and difficidin, as well as putative novel clusters. LCMS confirmed the presence of surfactin and fengycin in bacterial extracts, supporting the genomic predictions. Collectively, these findings highlight the potential of DDC20 and DDC\_NEW2 (related to Bacillus spp.) from the banana rhizosphere as effective biocontrol agents against Foc TR4. This integrated approach, combining phenotypic assays, microscopy, and genome mining, provides a strong foundation for the development of sustainable strategies to manage Fusarium wilt in banana cultivation. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.

Mango is affected by several fungal diseases, including dieback caused by species of the Botryosphaeriaceae family. Recently, mango dieback was reported from multiple locations in Israel. In this study, we isolated and characterized 11 representative fungal isolates belonging to Botryosphaeriaceae from symptomatic mango stems. Lasiodiplodia theobromae and Neoscytalidium dimidiatum are reported in this study as pathogens causing mango dieback in Israel, based on morphology, phylogenetic inference (using ITS and tef1-α regions) and pathogenicity assays. Representative isolates of L. theobromae and N. dimidiatum caused dieback symptoms on detached mango stems under controlled conditions and on mango trees outdoors, growing under natural conditions under shade nets. The pathogens were re-isolated from inoculated stems, fulfilling Koch’s postulates. Lasiodiplodia theobromae has not been previously reported in Israel, while N. dimidiatum has been recorded on pitahaya fruit causing internal black rot disease. In this study, we report in detail on mango dieback caused by L. theobromae and N. dimidiatum in Israel. Considering the economic impact of dieback disease on mango yield, further studies on epidemiology will assist in developing disease management strategies.

Bark beetles and ambrosia beetles (species of the subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae) 'contribute' some of the serious pests of woodland and ornamental trees in many areas. The meeting focused on the challenges posed by these species in Israel. The main attention was devoted to woodborers as invasive species, the black twig borer (= BTB) Xylosandrus compactus in particular. The population of the BTB has been established in the last three years in the Galilee, inflicting severe damage to the major broad-leaved tree species of the local forest. BTB population is gradually spreading southward. At the meeting, several aspects the problem posed by invasive woodborers were presented with an emphasis on BTB. The research and development plans designed to produce the solutions were elaborated.

In the present study, we investigated the in-vitro and in-vivo effects of root endophytic fungal species isolated from squirting cucumber Ecballium elaterium on morphological, physiological and biochemical mechanisms of muskmelon (Cucumis melo) in response to salt stress. A total of 23 endophytic fungal isolates belonging to nine different genera were initially screened for their salt tolerance potential in saline medium. Endophytic Fusarium clavum EeR24 exhibited maximum salt tolerance in screening studies and was selected for further studies. Seedlings of C. melo were inoculated with F. clavum EeR24 and one week later were subjected to two salt (100 and 200 mM NaCl) and control (no salt) treatments in a growth chamber and greenhouse experiments. In growth chamber assays, seedlings treated with F. clavum EeR24 exhibited significant increase in growth and biomass under both controlled and saline conditions. Under greenhouse conditions, F. clavum EeR24 significantly improved morphological and physiological traits including plant height, weight, number of leaves, membrane stability, electrical conductivity, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance and transpiration, in C. melo in response to salt stress. Endophyte colonization also led to decreased absorption of Na+ (36-42 %) and Cl- (23-33 %) ions and an improved K+ (35 %) absorption. Under saline conditions, endophyte colonization improved catalase (24-37 %), guaiacol peroxidase (31-42 %) and superoxide dismutase (16-22 %), chlorophyll and phenolic content by 30-64 %, compared to non-colonized plants. Lipid peroxidation activities significantly decreased by 45 % and proline accumulation increased by 18 % in endophyte-colonized compared to non-colonized plants. Histochemical analysis indicated that under saline conditions, endophytic colonization reduced levels of H2O2, superoxide ion production and cell mortality and increased lignin deposition. The endophytic isolate F. clavum EeR24 also exhibited plant growth promoting activities by producing hydrolytic enzymes, IAA, and phosphate solubilization. Furthermore, a study on spatial colonization of the endophyte, using either conventional Petriplate counts or RFP-tagging, indicated that F. clavum was able to penetrate the root tissues of C. melo. Conclusively, the endophyte F. clavum EeR24 is an effective salt stress reducer and melon growth promotor; hence can be further taken into account for development as an eco-friendly bio-fertilizer to confer salt stress tolerance in melon.

Colletotrichum is an important phytopathogenic fungus that causes anthracnose disease in diverse agronomically important tropical food crops. Accurate pathogen identification is critical for early diagnosis and efficient management of anthracnose. ITS is not a reliable marker for this fungal genus due to its failure to phylogenetically resolve cryptic species. In this study, 36 Colletotrichum isolates belonging to the Acutatum, Boninense and Gloeosporioides species complexes were characterized using multigene phylogenetic analyses, morphology and pathogenicity assays. Additionally, the cross-inoculation potential of a representative subset of isolates was evaluated revealing that cross-infection potential is possible among the isolates belonging to the same species complex.

Fungi associated with cypress bark beetles are practically unknown in the Eastern Mediterranean. Our study focused on the fungi associated with the body parts and galleries of two indigenous cypress bark beetles, Phloeosinus armatus and P. bicolor, sampled from Cupressus sempervirens trees in different regions in Israel. Arbitrarily primed PCR, performed on genomic DNA of 302 isolates, clustered the fungal population into five distinct groups. Multilocus phylogeny, split-network analyses and morphological characterization identified the isolates as Geosmithia omnicola, Geosmithia langdonii, Geosmithia sp. 708b, Geosmithia cupressina sp. nov. CBS147103 and Talaromyces cupressi sp. nov. CBS147104. Of these fungal isolates, G. cupressina and T. cupressi are newly described, and their morphological features and phylogenetic designations are presented. Inoculation of intact cypress saplings in an outdoor net-house revealed that only the representative isolate T. cupressi sp. nov. CBS147104 causes 100% disease incidence, whereas Geosmithia spp. isolates are not pathogenic. A number of these fungi were isolated from parasitoids that emerged from branch and stem sections colonized by P. armatus. This study suggests a long and stable association between Phloeosinus and Geosmithia species, and a possible role for additional associated fungal species as pathogens or endophytes of C. sempervirens trees in Israel.

Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum spp. is an important disease of pepper (Capsicum annuum), affecting fruits and the overall yield worldwide. The disease was recently observed for the first time in Israel in the summer of 2020. In this study, morphology, phylogenetic analysis using glutamine synthase (gs) and the intergenic region between apn2 and Mat1-2 genes (ApMat) sequences, and pathogenicity assays were conducted to characterize and identify the Colletotrichum isolates retrieved from symptomatic pepper fruits. This is the first report of Colletotrichum aenigma and C. perseae as pathogens of pepper anthracnose in Israel.

Exotic diseases and pests of trees have caused continental-scale disturbances in forest ecosystems and industries, and their invasions are considered largely unpredictable. We tested the concept of preinvasion assessment of not yet invasive organisms, which enables empirical risk assessment of potential invasion and impact. Our example assesses fungi associated with Old World bark and ambrosia beetles and their potential to impact North American trees. We selected 55 Asian and European scolytine beetle species using host use, economic, and regulatory criteria. We isolated 111 of their most consistent fungal associates and tested their effect on four important southeastern American pine and oak species. Our test dataset found no highly virulent pathogens that should be classified as an imminent threat. Twenty-two fungal species were minor pathogens, which may require context-dependent response for their vectors at North American borders, while most of the tested fungi displayed no significant impact. Our results are significant in three ways; they ease the concerns over multiple overseas fungus vectors suspected of heightened potential risk, they provide a basis for the focus on the prevention of introduction and establishment of species that may be of consequence, and they demonstrate that preinvasion assessment, if scaled up, can support practical risk assessment of exotic pathogens.

Macrophomina phaseolina is a soil-borne fungal pathogen that incites charcoal rot in more than 500 plant species including melon, Cucumis melo. Disease incidence and severity are affected by host genetic background, plant age, temperature, and water economy. The non-genetic variation in disease severity exhibited by infected melon plants poses a challenge to breeding for resistance. The objective of this investigation was to advance toward a fast and reliable screening methodology for identifying resistant melon germplasm, to facilitate breeding for resistance to M. phaseolina. To achieve this goal, plants of 25 melon accessions were inoculated with M. phaseolina using the toothpick method and the plants were defined as resistant or susceptible to the pathogen based on degree of disease severity. Young plants of the melon accessions were tested in a plastic greenhouse, a glass greenhouse, and a growth chamber to assess the effects of the environment, primarily temperature, on disease severity. Also tested were maturing field-grown plants as well as branches that were detached from them and inoculated in the laboratory. Differences in disease severity among accessions were most evident under the high temperatures of the glasshouse experiments conducted in mid-summer. Two accessions, Qishu Meshullash and PI 164323, were the most consistently resistant to M. phaseolina over the wide range of environmental conditions posed by the present experiments. When only the six most resistant and six most susceptible accessions were considered, moderate to high correlations (r = 0.62–0.96) in disease severity were observed between the field-grown plants and their detached branches. Results from a half-diallele crossing scheme involving six of the accessions indicated that resistance of melon to M. phaseolina has both, dominant and additive components.

Members of the Fusarium oxysporum complex are ubiquitous soilborne fungal pathogens causing wilt diseases in various plant hosts. Fusarium oxysporum (Fo) f. sp. cannabis was first reported causing wilt disease in hemp in Italy in 1962. To date, Fusarium wilt continues to cause concern in industrial and medicinal cannabis cultivation worldwide. During a 3-year period (2018 to 2021), Fo strains were isolated from medical cannabis plants (Cannabis sativa) exhibiting wilt symptoms that were cultivated in numerous commercial farms in Israel. A diverse set of these strains was subjected to molecular phylogenetic analyses to assess their genetic diversity and to compare them with other f. sp. cannabis isolates included in prior studies. Maximum likelihood bootstrap analysis of a partial translation elongation factor (TEF1) dataset, which included 24 f. sp. cannabis sequences, revealed that the 11 strains from Israel comprised five TEF1 haplotypes. Two of the haplotypes from Israel were identical to isolates previously reported from British Columbia and California and British Columbia and Ontario. Overall, the 24 f. sp. cannabis sequences included 12 unique TEF1 haplotypes. These were phylogenetically diverse, suggesting that pathogenicity to C. sativa may have evolved independently within the F. oxysporum complex. Pathogenicity tests of the Israeli strains were confirmed by Koch’s postulates assays. Strains of the five different f. sp. cannabis TEF1 haplotypes all caused wilt in cannabis seedlings but with varying levels of aggressiveness. The same isolates that originated from asymptomatic infected mother plants were found in wilted cuttings indicating that the pathogen can be spread via propagation material.

The Ambrosia Fusarium Clade (AFC) is a monophyletic lineage within clade 3 of the Fusarium solani species complex (FSSC) that currently comprises 19 genealogically exclusive species. These fungi are known or predicted to be farmed by adult female Euwallacea ambrosia beetles as a nutritional mutualism (Coleoptera: Scolytinae; Xyleborini). To date, only eight of the 19 AFC species have been described formally with Latin binomials. We describe three AFC species, previously known as AF-8, AF-10, and AF-11, based on molecular phylogenetic analysis of multilocus DNA sequence data and comparative morphological/phenotypic studies. Fusarium duplospermum (AF-8) farmed by E. perbrevis on avocado in Florida, USA, is distinguished by forming two morphologically different types of multiseptate conidia and brownish orange colonies on potato dextrose agar (PDA). Fusarium drepaniforme (AF-10), isolated from an unknown woody host in Singapore and deposited as Herb IMI 351954 in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK, under the name F. bugnicourtii, is diagnosed by frequent production of multiseptate sickle-shaped conidia. Fusarium papillatum (AF-11), isolated from mycangia of E. perbrevis infesting tea in Kandy, Sri Lanka, forms multiseptate clavate conidia that possess a papillate apical cell protruding toward the ventral side. Lastly, we prepared an augmented description of F. kuroshium (AF-12), previously isolated from the heads or galleries of E. kuroshio in a California sycamore tree, El Cajon, California, USA, and recently validated nomenclaturally as Fusarium. Conidia formed by F. kuroshium vary widely in size and shape, suggesting a close morphological relationship with F. floridanum, compared with all other AFC species. Maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses of a multilocus data set resolve these three novel AFC species, and F. kuroshium, as phylogenetically distinct based on genealogical concordance. Given the promiscuous nature of several Euwallacea species, and the overlapping geographic range of several AFC species and Euwallacea ambrosia beetles, the potential for symbiont switching among sympatric species is discussed.

This study examined the polyphagous shot hole borer (PSHB) Euwallacea fornicatus (Coleoptera; Scolytinae) native to Southeast Asia and concentrated on its wide host range in two of the invaded areas, California and Israel. Among the 583 examined tree species, 55.9% were characterized as “non-reproductive hosts” and only 13.8% were characterized as “reproductive hosts,” suitable for the E. fornicatus reproduction. Families that included ≥20 species and genera with ≥10 were considered for further analysis. The highest percentage of tree species suitable for reproduction was obtained for Salicaceae and Sapindaceae, whereas the lowest percentage of tree species belonging to this category were within the Rosaceae, Myrtaceae, and Magnoliaceae. The genera Acer , Quercus and Acacia displayed the highest percentage within the “reproductive host” category, with the former significantly higher from all seven of the studied genera. We found that all Brachychiton and Erythrina were attacked and none of the examined 20 Eucalyptus spp. were suitable for E. fornicatus reproduction. The results suggest discordance between host tree phylogeny and susceptibility to the E. fornicatus , indicating that trait correlation of susceptibility of different tree species to the E. fornicatus are the results of convergent evolution and not of a common descent. A theoretical model, suggesting the different possibilities of potential tree species becoming attractive or non-attractive to E. fornicatus attack, is described. It is suggested that the beetle reproduction success rate over a wide host range, as well as the long list of species belonging to the “non-reproductive host” category, is the outcome of interactions between the beetle fungal symbiont, F. euwallaceae , and sapwood of the attacked tree. The model suggests that a tree selected by the E. fornicatus may fall in one of three groups, (i) those in which F. euwallaceae is unable to develop, (ii) those tree species that slow the development of the fungus, and (iii) those that enable F. euwallaceae to thrive. Hence, the host range suitable for beetle reproduction is determined by development of F. euwallacea e. In general, PSHB does not distinguish between host species of the “non-reproductive host” and “reproductive host” categories.

Scientific communication is facilitated by a data-driven, scientifically sound taxonomy that considers the end-user's needs and established successful practice. In 2013, the Fusarium community voiced near unanimous support for a concept of Fusarium that represented a clade comprising all agriculturally and clinically important Fusarium species, including the F. solani species complex (FSSC). Subsequently, this concept was challenged in 2015 by one research group who proposed dividing the genus Fusarium into seven genera, including the FSSC described as members of the genus Neocosmospora, with subsequent justification in 2018 based on claims that the 2013 concept of Fusarium is polyphyletic. Here, we test this claim and provide a phylogeny based on exonic nucleotide sequences of 19 orthologous protein-coding genes that strongly support the monophyly of Fusarium including the FSSC. We reassert the practical and scientific argument in support of a genus Fusarium that includes the FSSC and several other basal lineages, consistent with the longstanding use of this name among plant pathologists, medical mycologists, quarantine officials, regulatory agencies, students, and researchers with a stake in its taxonomy. In recognition of this monophyly, 40 species described as genus Neocosmospora were recombined in genus Fusarium, and nine others were renamed Fusarium. Here the global Fusarium community voices strong support for the inclusion of the FSSC in Fusarium, as it remains the best scientific, nomenclatural, and practical taxonomic option available.

Macrophomina phaseolina is a soilborne fungal pathogen causing crown and root rot in strawberry worldwide. M. phaseolina is one of the most destructive soilborne pathogens of strawberry in the Mediterranean region. M. phaseolina was isolated from different cultivars of strawberry showing crown rot, foliage wilting, charcoal rot and plant mortality, cultivated in Qualubia, El Behera and Ismailia governorates in Egypt, and other regions in Israel. The most effective approach for managing the disease relies on resistant germplasm selected using reliable techniques. Pathogenicity tests using M. phaseolina isolates were conducted for virulence and viability using various methods. Various cultivars of strawberry were inoculated by inserting M. phaseolina microsclerotia-colonized toothpicks into crowns of the plants, compared to plantings into a potted soil mix containing 2.5x10(3) sclerotia mL(-1). All inoculated plants were grown at 30 degrees C under greenhouse conditions. Disease symptoms were observed 4 days after inoculation with plant mortality of all the cultivars occurring approximately 20 days post-inoculation, using the toothpick method. In contrast, the microsclerotia inoculation method appeared to be more accurate in distinguishing susceptibility/tolerance of the tested strawberry cultivars, with initial disease symptoms appearing 2 weeks after inoculation. Using the microsclerotia method, disease symptoms progressed faster in the cultivar 'Festival' that was more susceptible to the pathogen, while the 'Florida 90' cultivar showed an intermediate level of disease, with 'Fortuna' showing the least disease progress over time. Additional cultivars were tested in a screenhouse using the microsclerotia method. A differential mortality rate was observed. Thus, disease screening of resistant germplasm to M. phaseolina should rely on an accurate and reliable inoculation technique.

Medical cannabis (MC) production is a rapidly expanding industry. Over the past ten years, many additional phytocannabinoids have been discovered and used for different purposes. MC was reported beneficial for the treatment of a variety of clinical conditions such as analgesia, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injuries, Tourette's syndrome, epilepsy, glaucoma, Parkinson disease and more. Yet, there is still a major lack of research and knowledge related to MC plant diseases, both at the pre- and postharvest stages. Many of the fungi that infect MC, such as Aspergillus and Penicillium spp., are capable of producing mycotoxins that are carcinogenic, or otherwise harmful when consumed, and especially by those patients who suffer from a weakened immune system, causing invasive contamination in humans. Therefore, there are strict limits regarding the permitted levels of fungal colony forming units (CFU) in commercial MC inflorescences. Furthermore, the strict regulation on pesticide appliance application in MC cultivation exacerbates the problem. In order to meet the permitted CFU limit levels, there is a need for pesticide-free postharvest treatments relying on natural non-chemical methods. Thus, a decontamination approach is required that will not damage or significantly alter the chemical composition of the plant product. In this research, a new method for sterilization of MC inflorescences for reduction of fungal contaminantstes was assessed, without affecting the composition of plant secondary metabolites. Inflorescences were exposed to short pulses of steam (10, 15 and 20 s exposure) and CFU levels and plant chemical compositions, pre- and post-treatment, were evaluated. Steam treatments were very effective in reducing fungal colonization to below detection limits. The effect of these treatments on terpene profiles was minor, resulting mainly in the detection of certain terpenes that were not present in the untreated control. Steaming decreased cannabinoid concentrations as the treatment prolonged, although insignificantly. These results indicate that the steam sterilization method at the tested exposure periods was very effective in reducing CFU levels while preserving the initial molecular biochemical composition of the treated inflorescences.

Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum, is a major disease of jojoba, causing serious economic losses. This study was aimed at characterizing the Fusarium populations associated with jojoba in Israel. Fifty Fusarium isolates used in this study included 23 isolates from the 1990s ("past") and 27 recently isolated ("recent"). All the isolates were characterized by arbitrarily primed (ap)-PCR and 16 representatives were additionally delineated using multilocus (tef1, rpb1, rpb2) phylogeny and evaluated for their pathogenic potential. Consequently, 88% of the isolates were identified and characterized to the F. oxysporum species complex. The remaining 12% grouped within the F. fujikuroi, F. solani, and F. redolens species complexes. Variations in the infection rate (16.7%-100%), disease symptoms (0.08-1.25, on a scale of 0-3), and fungal colonization index (0.67-2.17, on a scale of 0-4) were observed within the tested isolates, with no significant differences between the past and recent isolates. The representative isolates were assigned to 11 groups based on ap-PCR. Pathogenicity tests showed that isolates from Groups II, IV, and V were the most aggressive, whereas isolates from Groups III, VIII, and IX were the least aggressive. Among the tested isolates, F. oxysporum sensu lato was the most aggressive, followed by F. proliferatum, while F. nygamai was the least aggressive. This study demonstrates the complexity and genetic diversity of Fusarium wilt on jojoba in Israel, indicating possible multiple introductions of infected germplasm into the country.