This study presents a comprehensive assessment of the morphology and porosity of microstructured charcoal using a combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), computed tomography (CT), and mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) methods. SEM analysis revealed a parallel arrangement of tube-like structures interspersed with smaller pores, confirming the presence of fibrous formations. MIP evaluation was conducted in two research series. MIP results identified macropores as the primary contributors to mercury intrusion; however, a minor volume of mercury also intrudes to the mesopores. The total pore area was determined to range between 70.7 and 88.5 m2·g-1, with porosity values of approximately 58.0-62.4% across different experimental series. These variations highlight the heterogeneous nature of the sample. Additionally, the uniformity of the charring process during dry wood distillation was indicated by wall thickness measurements, which ranged narrowly from 5.7 to 25 µm.

This study presents the results of microscopic and geochemical analyses of the Menilite Formation from the Polish part of the Outer Carpathians. Twelve Oligocene shales from the Central Carpathian Synclinorium of the Silesian Nappe were examined to evaluate the petrological characterization of the solid bitumen and other organic matter (OM), identify the hydrocarbon evidence in the analyzed samples, and to understand the hydrocarbon generation in low thermal maturity rocks. The OM dispersed in the analyzed Menilite Formation is mainly represented by alginite and bituminite-rich, oil-prone kerogen. The reflectance measurements of vitrinite (VRo %), solid bitumen (BRo %), and the values of the maturity biomarker parameter indicator revealed that the analyzed samples contain immature to early mature organic matter in terms of hydrocarbon generation. Three types of solid bitumen (SB) were noticed: dark brown, almost black in reflected white light with a scratchy or granular surface bitumen (GR), as well as two types of homogenous SB. One reflected shades of brown-orange when observed under UV light, while the other was a non-fluorescent, lighter gray in reflected white light. Solid bitumen appears in samples where the reflectance of vitrinite is equal to at least 0.43 % VRo and has the ability to reflect light from 0.26 to 0.32 % BRo. A strong correlation was found between lighter homogenous solid bitumen reflectance with vitrinite reflectance, CPI 25-31, and dinosterane distribution. The lack of a broad interrelation between geochemical parameters and vitrinite reflectance values was linked with different kerogen mixtures within the analyzed strata. Higher content of bacterial Type II kerogen prompted the generation of early-mature hydrocarbons, while higher input of Type I and/or III kerogen leads to a decrease in the scale of the phenomenon of early-mature hydrocarbons. In Menilite shales, the hydrocarbons are generated in the forms of oil droplets and oil exudates.

The Polish Carpathian region has over 170 years of conventional hydrocarbon exploration history, with numerous discovered oil and gas fields. In recent years, increasing attention has been given to the potential for new, alternative hydrocarbon deposits. This study evaluates three types of mature mudstones from the Oligocene Menilite Beds, Krosno Beds and Gryb & oacute;w Beds, collected from boreholes in the Polish part of the Outer Carpathians, as potential unconventional source and reservoir rocks. X-ray diffraction (XRD), optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), N-2 adsorption and mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) techniques were used to evaluate the pore system, organic matter and mineral composition in each lithofacies. The findings reveal that the Menilite Beds mudstone is thermally mature, with Type II/III kerogen. In contrast, the mudstones of the Gryb & oacute;w and Krosno beds are highly thermally mature, corresponding to the dry gas window stage, with kerogen Types IV and mixed III/IV, respectively. All three formations display a fair total organic carbon (TOC) value (0.7%-1.1%) but have low hydrocarbon generation potential (hydrogen index [HI] < 85 mg HC/g TOC). Microscopic observations confirm the presence of both mineral and organic matter pores in all three mature mudstones. Samples are dominated by nanoporosity (average pore size <14 nm), with low effective porosity values across all samples, ranging from 1.51% to 3.59%. Permeability is very low (0.029-0.081 mD). Nitrogen adsorption isotherms are type IV for all mudstones, with H3/H4 hysteresis loops, indicating slit- and wedge-shaped pores. The S-BET N-2 values range from 1.352 to 7.277 m(2)/g, with the highest values for Krosno Beds samples. The mudstones and claystones of the Menilite, Krosno and Gryb & oacute;w beds are primarily affected by compaction, with only a minor influence from cementation and dissolution. The evaluated mudstones do not qualify as effective shale oil/gas source rock; despite good thermal maturity, their hydrocarbon generation potential at the analysed depths is very low. It could be hypothesised that, given the overall volume of nanopores and their interconnectivity, such a potential unconventional hydrocarbon system may occur at greater depths or in regions where hydrocarbon generation potential has been documented, even at shallower depths.

Low-field NMR (LF-NMR) is a widely applied technique for evaluating pore size distribution (PSD) in porous materials. Conventional approaches typically assume surface-controlled spin-spin relaxation and negligible diffusion contributions under the fast-diffusion regime, which introduces systematic errors when applied to nano- and microporous systems. In this work, we present the Effective Diffusion Cubic (EDC) model, a new framework for LF-NMR-based PSD estimation in tight rocks. The EDC method incorporates pore-size dependence of both the effective diffusion coefficient and the induced internal magnetic field gradient. Crucially, the effective diffusion coefficient, D(d), is parameterized by a logistic function that faithfully approximates the Padé form, enabling a precise quantification of diffusion-related effects on T2 relaxation. Applied to nine siliciclastic core samples, the EDC approach produced PSDs corrected for diffusion-induced distortions and in closer agreement with independent reference data compared to conventional models. These results demonstrate that the EDC methodology provides a physically consistent and more accurate means of quantifying pore systems, thereby enhancing NMR-based petrophysical characterization of tight rock formations.

This article presents a novel analysis of laboratory test results conducted on core samples from the & Aring;re Formation in the Norwegian Sea, as well as the Skagerrak and Ula Formations in the North Sea. The study addresses the critical challenge of utilizing sedimentary rocks from these Mesozoic formations as geothermal reservoirs for Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) technology, with a focus on using supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2-EGS) as the working fluid in Norway. This is particularly significant given the growing demand for sustainable energy solutions and the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions. A total of ten core samples from the & Aring;re, Ula, and Skagerrak Formations were analyzed to assess their geothermal reservoir potential. Laboratory investigations included petrophysical tests, effective porosity measurements ranging from 1.94 % to 21.52 % (average 11.66 %), conducted using low-field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and Mercury Intrusion Capillary Pressure (MICP). The median pore diameters ranged from 0.031 mu m to 3.255 mu m (average 0.97 mu m by MICP, 1.32 mu m by NMR). Permeability values varied widely, from 0.053 to 67.467 mD, reflecting significant heterogeneity in pore structure. Mechanical tests based on ultrasonic P- and S-wave velocities (ranging from 2417 to 5100 m/s and 1355-2570 m/s, respectively) enabled the calculation of dynamic elastic moduli. The average values were: Young's modulus - 18.91 GPa, bulk modulus - 17.19 GPa, and shear modulus - 7.35 GPa. Skeletal density was higher in & Aring;re and Ula formations (similar to 2.65 g/cm(3)) than in Skagerrak (similar to 2.33 g/cm(3)), correlating with observed differences in porosity. The analysis revealed that the Ula Formation exhibits the widest parameter variability, with some samples qualifying as both petrothermal and hydrothermal EGS reservoirs, while all Skagerrak samples aligned with hydrothermal classification. Notably, the & Aring;re Formation exhibited the best combination of high elastic parameters, porosity, and versatility, making it a strong candidate for CO2-EGS development. This study underscores the innovative potential of integrating CO2 sequestration with geothermal energy production in Norway. It provides a valuable dataset for evaluating sedimentary formations as viable CO2-EGS reservoirs, offering new opportunities for cleaner, ore efficient energy systems in geologically diverse regions.

This study investigates the wall thickness and specific surface area (SBET) of ammonium nitrate(V) samples of varying provenance. The research focuses on both fertilizer-grade ammonium nitrate(V) and three porous prill samples obtained from different manufacturers. The samples were analyzed using tomography scanning and two distinct porosimetry methods. The wall thickness analysis revealed that fertilizer-grade ammonium nitrate(V) possesses thicker walls, ranging from 0.05 to 0.40 mm, compared to porous prill-type ammonium nitrate(V), which predominantly exhibited wall thicknesses between 0.05 and 0.025 mm, with occasional thicker regions up to 0.040 mm. These variations in wall thickness are likely attributable to differences in manufacturing processes and prilling conditions specific to the ammonium nitrate(V) porous prill-type samples. The specific surface area (SBET), derived from nitrogen adsorption measurements, indicated that the samples exhibited surface areas ranging from 0.011 to 0.466 m2·g, suggesting that these samples do not exhibit particularly high absorption capacities. However, the SBET values obtained from the mercury intrusion method suggested significantly higher absorption capacities, falling within the range of 4.87–18.29 m2·g. These findings suggest that mercury porosimetry may provide a more accurate assessment of the porosity and absorption potential of ammonium nitrate(V) samples.

Understanding the filtration and storage properties of tight reservoirs is crucial for efficient resource exploitation, particularly in unconventional formations. This study presents two low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) techniques: standard cut-off and modified differential approaches combined with mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies to evaluate porosity and pore size distribution (PSD) in such formations. The differential technique involves subtracting the dry sample signal from a 100% water-saturated one, allowing the chemically bound water compound to be eliminated and facilitating PSD analysis. Through the application of the percolation theory, we established a power-law relationship between LF-NMR transverse relaxation time (T2) and MICP pore-throat diameter, enabling the derivation of PSD and pseudo capillary pressure curves. Our methodology was validated on a sample set representing tight sandstones, conglomerates, and extrusive rocks with high clay and iron mineral content, demonstrating the superior accuracy of the modified differential method in estimating effective porosity and absolute PSD in comparison with the standard approach. While the use of the percolation theory in PSD conversion was successful for rocks with unimodal distributions, it often failed for rocks with larger voids. The study also revealed that the relationship between the LF-NMR transverse relaxation times and MICP pore sizes is both nonlinear and challenging to describe with a universal equation, especially in the presence of para- and ferro-magnetic elements in the rock matrix. Despite obstacles to the complete elimination of the influence of these minerals on the T2 distribution, employing the modified differential LF-NMR method significantly mitigated this effect and offered a precise and noninvasive way of characterizing the petrophysical properties of tight reservoir rocks. Consequently, our studies offer a significant step toward a more precise assessment of pore structures in unconventional reservoirs that could be translated into more efficient strategies for locating geothermal heat and hydrocarbon resources.

Oligocene siliciclastics belonging to the Silesian Unit in the Outer Carpathians were sampled from five locations (Iwonicz Zdrój, Krosno, Równe, Rymanów Zdrój, Zmysłówka) with the first four locations connected to Menilite Shales. The sample from Zmysłówka is an example of the lowermost part of the Krosno Beds. Preliminary geochemical results obtained from the Rock-Eval analysis suggested the presence of immature mixed II/III Type kerogen. Detailed geochemical (GC-MS) and petrological analyses show evidence of extensive phytoplankton blooms, causing the occurrence of episodic ferruginous hypoxic zones. Hypoxic zones were present in the photic zone, where molecular evidence of green and/or brown pigmented sulfur reducing bacteria were marked. The size and character of the blooms were controlled by the palaeoenvironmental conditions. In cases of intense nutrient-rich freshwater loading by a palaeoestuary and/or rainfall, extensive algal blooms were reported. With the increasing aridity and/or decrease of the palaeoestuary impact, the phytoplankton blooms gradually acquired a mostly bacterial character and were reduced in size. The most hypoxic conditions were noted in causes linked with the most intense algal blooms. In most of the cases, algal blooms were dominated by diatoms, suggested by the extensive presence of C25 Highly Branched Isoprenoid, a specific biomarker linked with these organisms. The dinoflagellates only recorded a dominant role in blooms in the Krosno location. A comparison of diterpenoids and triterpenoids revealed that terrestrial organic matter was mostly dominated by gymnosperms like conifers from the Cupressaceae, Pinaceae and Podocarpaceae families. Beside these, the molecular evidence of the angiosperms, bryophytes, and fungi was marked. Both geochemical and petrological analyses confirm the minor role of palaeo-wildfires in the land areas near the deposition place of the analysed samples.

The deeply buried, northeastern segment of the fold-and-thrust belt of the Outer Carpathians is contoured by synorogenic sediments (Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene) of tectonically multiplied thicknesses, which mask the deep-seated structures. Integration of archival mappings and profiles of deep wells with the new generation of geological-seismic cross-sections reveals the unconformable position of asymmetric folds and duplexes built of synorogenic sediments, resting upon the older flysch formations (Cretaceous-Lower Paleogene). These structures are cut by a system of dislocated, monovergent, imbricated overthrusts, deeply rooted in the outer zones of thrust folds. These zones are associated with deep-seated, high-amplitude (up to several kilometres), Meso-Paleozoic and Precambrian faults originated by subduction of the European Platform. As revealed by geological reinterpretation of MT-1 magnetotelluric soundings, the time/space identification of longitudinal, compressional sutures rotated by transversal, transpressional faults suggests a segmented model of subduction of the platform basement. Its coincidence with the reconstructed kinematic evolution of sedimentary covers justifies the origin of the inversion tectonics of the Central Depression of the Outer Carpathians as a result of the heterogenic structure of the consolidated basement.

Porous and agricultural NH4NO3 were analyzed for porosity and pore surface area using the mercury porosimetry method (MIP). The detd. surface area values were significantly higher than thoseobtained using the low-temp. N-2 sorption method and were in the range 4.8-18.2 m(2)/g. The smallest surface area was characteristic of agricultural NH4NO3, while larger surfaces were characteristic of porous samples. The anal. of diesel oil adsorption showed that the NH4NO3 samples showed adsorption in the range of 3.25-14.5%, the highest for porous NH4NO3, which can be explained by both the developed morphological structure of the samples and the occurrence of open porosity. The obtained results indicate that the MIP method should be recommended for NH4NO3 porosity studies, in contrast to the N-2 adsorption technique used so far.

A novel one-pot synthesis route leading to the formation of a wormhole-like structure was developed for the successful fabrication of porous YSZ and Ni-YSZ systems. This method involved co-precipitation in the presence of the micelle-forming agents CTAB/Pluronic P123 and crystallising NaCl. The obtained skeletons were me-chanically stable and presented almost 50% uniform, open porosity without using any additional pore-formers. The fabricated 0.3 M CTAB/NaCl Ni-YSZ showed better long-term electrical stability in hydrogen than a tradi-tional Ni-YSZ cermet. It resulted from the suppression of Ni structural changes throughout the anode scaffold. Moreover, higher electrochemical activity of this novel anode is expected due to the smaller particle sizes of Ni/ YSZ, high homogeneity, highly developed TPB, and better interfacial interaction between the Ni and YSZ. Therefore, the novel soft-hard templating method is recognised as a promising route for the fabrication of the YSZ or Ni-YSZ with a highly developed microstructure and improved stability.

potential, the Lgota mudstone is an ineffective source rock. However, given the other petrophysical and geochemical properties, the analysed formations may constitute a basis for further research on the occurrence of unconventional reservoirs in the entire Carpathian region.

New seismic data and the completion of the K-1 petroleum exploratory well, located close to the axial zone of the Mogilno-Łódź Trough (Polish Lowlands) delivered new insight into local structural, tectonic, facial and thermal variability of this geological unit. In this paper, the two variants of 3D models (SMV1 and SMV2) of Permian-Mesozoic strata are presented for the salt pillow related Kłecko Anticline, while resources assessment was confined to the Rotliegend Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) type reservoir, that is divided into Playa, Eolian and Fluvial facies-based complexes. Using very conservative assumptions on the methods of the EGS reservoir development, authors assessed that heat in place and technical potential for eolian sandstones are about 386 PJ and ca. 2814 kW, respectively, and for Fluvial 367 PJ and ca. 2850 kW in relation to the volume of 1 km3 at depths of about 5000 m b.s.l. The authors recommend for the further development of the Eolian complex because of its low shale content, influencing the high susceptibility to fracking. The presented research is the first Polish local resources assessment for an EGS reservoir in sedimentary Rotliegend, within thermal anomaly below the salt pillow, which is one of over 100 salt structures mapped in Poland.

Petrophysical evaluation of the Lower Permian formation was performed on the basis of the results of laboratory tests of rocks including pore space investigations using the Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure (MICP) method, the pore space saturation measurements by the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) method, and measurements of the thermal conductivity coefficient by FOX series heat flow meters based on the one-dimensional Fourier equation. Three types of rocks: sandstones, conglomerates and effusive, sampled from the Os ' no IG-2 well located in the Gorz ' ow Block (NW part of Poland) were analysed. 42 core samples from the depth interval of 3212-3659 m bgl were tested. The results provide a wide range of information about the sample, primarily such parameters as pore size distribution, effective porosity and permeability, bulk density, sketal density, and thermal con-ductivity. The aim of the study was to determine the relevance of Lower Permian formation as a geothermal reservoir for CO2 - EGS -Enhanced Geothermal Systems, which use carbon dioxide instead of water as working medium. Although worldwide research on such systems has been going on for many years, so far it has not been realized on a commercial scale. Moreover, to date there are no EGS installations in Poland. The ongoing research aims to bring the construction of the first pilot installation in Poland closer. Effusive rocks were characterized by lower value differentiation and relatively high lambda values (average 1.77-1.81 W/mK for dry samples, 2 W/ mK for fully saturated and 2.1 W/mK for a mixture of water and CO2), average effective porosity of 7.92% and permeability of 0.055 mD. Sandstones have the highest thermal conductivity values (1.87 W/mK at 20 degrees C, 1.87 W/mK at 50 degrees C, 1.82 W/mK at 100 degrees C and 1.79 W/mK at 150 degrees C), average effective porosity 5.56%, and permeability of 0.133 mD. For the conglomerates, the lowest values of thermal conductivity were obtained (average value for water-saturated sample equal 1.7 W/mK and for dry sample 1.4 W/mK). The average value of effective porosity for conglomerates is 7.66% and the permeability is 0.141 mD. The results indicate that the studied rocks have suitable parameters as a geothermal reservoir for CO2-EGS, especially effusive rocks. These parameters are similar to those of reservoir rocks for the EGS installation in Gross Scho center dot nebeck, as well as all types of rocks are classified primarily as petrothermal EGS.

Extending the use of ionic liquids in sample preparation techniques remains a challenge. This paper presents procedures enabling the easy application of ionic liquids to the SPME technique. For this purpose, two approaches for producing a porous silica coating on a metal rod were investigated. Two silica precursor and porogen systems were used in the research: K2SiO3 + Formamide and Tetramethyl-orthosilicate + Polyethylene oxide. The procedure was optimized concerning its operational parameters: the possibility of immobilization of a possibly large volume of ionic liquid and mechanical strength and thermal resistance. In the course of the research, it was shown that the optimal parameters are ensured by using K2SiO3 with Formamide. The obtained material had an average pore diameter equal to 0.326 mu m with a surface area of the pores similar to 6.33 m(2)/g. The size of the pores allows for the quantitative introduction of the ionic liquid and its immobilization to the extent of enabling the extraction of VOC and their subsequent thermal desorption. Finally, the conducted experiments showed that the dominant mechanism of retaining analytes in the IL-silica hybrid material is their dissolution in the ionic liquid, while adsorption on the silica surface plays a lesser role.

In this study, optical microscopic analyses were applied to evaluate the thermal maturity, characteristics of solid bitumen, and other organic matter finely dispersed in Oligocene shales of the Menilite Formation in the Iwonicz-Zdrój–Rudawka Rymanowska Fold (IRF) and Bóbrka–Rogi Fold (BRF) of the Central Carpathian Synclinorium of the Silesian Nappe, Outer Carpathians, Poland. The investigation was carried out at two-unit depths of the shallow and deeper D-1 sections (430 m – IRF and 4,300 m – BRF) and outcrop samples (BRF). The mean random huminite reflectance values indicate immature conditions with respect to hydrocarbon generation in samples from the D-1 shallow section (VRo≈0.40%) and in the outcrop samples (VRo=0.36%). The degree of thermal maturity of the organic matter from a depth of about 4,300 m – BRF based on random vitrinite (VRo≈0.80%) and solid bitumen (BRo≈0.65%) reflectance measurements is associated with the “oil window” for petroleum generation. The organic components dispersed in the examined Menilite Formation samples are typical for hydrocarbon-prone organic matter, suggesting the dominant kerogen type II. The potential precursor maceral for solid bitumen occurring in the examined samples from the deeper D-1 sections is largely the alginite maceral.

A b s t r a c t.In this study, we apply microscopic analysis to evaluate the maturity of organic matter and characterise the macerals dispersed in the Upper Eocene shale samples from the Hieroglyphic Formation (Silesian Nappe, Outer Carpathians).The mean vitrinite reflectance values indicate the presence of organic matter immature to hydrocarbon generation (R o » 0.43%).The main organic component dispersed in analysed samples is vitrinite, characteristic of kerogen type III.

The origin, migration pathways, as well as the influence of secondary processes of oil and natural gas accumulated in lower Cretaceous to lower Miocene strata of the western part of the Polish Outer Carpathians (between Kraków and Pilzno towns) based on results of organic geochemical analyses are investigated in this paper. Oil and thermogenic hydrocarbon gases were generated mainly from type II kerogen, and type II and III kerogen mixed in various proportions. These kerogens mainly occur in the Oligocene Menilite beds of the Silesian and Dukla nappes. Oils were generated from early to late “oil window”. Secondary cracking was recorded in oils from Dukla nappe, other secondary processes including biodegradation, water washing and evaporative fractionation were also developed to a various extent in many oils. The most biodegraded oils occur in seep S-Li, and the most extensive water washing is observed in the oil from seep S-Sa/1. The evaporative fractionation processes most significantly occur in the selected deepest parts of the multi-horizontal Biecz field. Hydrocarbon gases originated during both microbial and thermogenic processes of organic matter transformation. Natural gas has not been subjected to biodegradation processes. Carbon dioxide is derived from both microbial and thermogenic decomposition processes of organic matter and was generated together with hydrocarbon gases.