Approximately 88 Million tonnes (Mt) of food is wasted in the European Union each year and the environmental impacts of these losses throughout the food supply chain are widely recognised. This study illustrates the impacts of food waste in relation to the total food utilised, including the impact from food waste management based on available data at the European level. The impacts are calculated for the Global Warming Potential, the Acidification Potential and the Eutrophication Potential using a bottom-up approach using more than 134 existing LCA studies on nine representative products (apple, tomato, potato, bread, milk, beef, pork, chicken, white fish). Results show that 186 Mt CO2-eq, 1.7 Mt SO2-eq. and 0.7 Mt PO4-eq can be attributed to food waste in Europe. This is 15 to 16% of the total impact of the entire food supply chain. In general, the study confirmed that most of the environmental impacts are derived from the primary production step of the chain. That is why animal-containing food shows most of the food waste related impacts when it is extrapolated to total food waste even if cereals are higher in mass. Nearly three quarters of all food waste-related impacts for Global Warming originate from greenhouse gas emissions during the production step. Emissions by food processing activities contribute 6%, retail and distribution 7%, food consumption, 8% and food disposal, 6% to food waste related impacts. Even though the results are subject to certain data and scenario uncertainties, the study serves as a baseline assessment, based on current food waste data, and can be expanded as more knowledge on the type and amount of food waste becomes available. Nevertheless, the importance of food waste prevention is underlined by the results of this study, as most of the impacts originate from the production step. Through food waste prevention, those impacts can be avoided as less food needs to be produced.

Wheat straw forms an important, reliable source of lignocellulosic biomass for use in second-generation ethanol production. However, there is limited understanding of the variation in quality of straw from current breeding cultivars, and studies on such variation have generally employed suboptimal pretreatments. There is also a degree of confusion regarding phenotypic characteristics relevant to optimising the enzymatic saccharification of cellulose after suitable pretreatments for biorefining compared with those which determine good ruminant digestibility. The aim of this study has been to (a) evaluate and compare the levels of glucose enzymatically released from straw obtained from 89 cultivars of winter wheat after optimised hydrothermal pretreatments and (b) identify the underlying phenotypic characteristics relevant to enhanced glucose production with special reference to the ratios of constituent tissue types.

The growing volumes of food globally lost or wasted and implications for food security and sustainability have raised the concern of researchers, governments, international organizations and grass-root movements. Much research and experiences investigating food waste causes and drivers focus on one specific segment of the food supply chain and limit the analysis to the situation of one or few countries, while the few studies of wider geographical scope also target other relevant and diversified objectives (e.g., food waste definition, quantification, environmental and economic impacts, and recommendations for interventions). This study, carried out by a network of European institutions involved in research and initiatives against food waste, focuses on the analysis of a broad area, Europe, through a wide and systematic literature review and consultation with stakeholders in international focus groups. The food supply chain was divided into seven segments and three main contexts were defined for the examination of food waste sources: Technological, Institutional (related to organisational factors, i.e., business management, economy, legislation, and policy), and Social (related to consumers' behaviours and lifestyles). Results suggest a wide and multifaceted problem, interconnected across all stages of the food supply chain, from primary production, to final consumption. Within each context, the identified drivers have been grouped according to the possibilities and the type of interventions for food waste reduction. A final cross-contextual prioritization distinguished food waste sources related to (A) inherent characteristics of food; (B) social and economic factors; (C) individual non-readily changeable behaviours; (D) other priorities targeted by private and public stakeholders; (E) diversified factors, such as mismanagement, inefficient legislation, lack of awareness or information; and sub-optimal use of available technologies, which could be more promptly changed. Such diversification of causes calls for specific monitoring systems, targeted policy measures, and actions of individual stakeholders at each stage of the food supply chain.

A central composite design was used to determine effects of pH (2.0–4.5), extraction temperature (70–90 °C) and time (120–240 min) on the yield, degree of methoxylation (DM) and galacturonic acid content (GA) of pectins extracted from banana peels with citric acid. Changes in composition during the main steps of pectin extraction were followed by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. FTIR was also used to determine DM and GA of pectins. Harsh temperature and pH conditions enhanced the extraction yield, but decreased DM. GA presented a maximum value at 83 °C, 190 min, and pH 2.7. The yield of galacturonic acid (YGA), which took into account both the extraction yield and the pectin purity, was improved by higher temperature and lower pH values. The optimum extraction conditions, defined as those resulting in a maximum YGA while keeping DM at a minimum of 51%, were: 87 °C, 160 min, pH 2.0.

Rice cultivation produces two waste streams, straw and husk, which could be exploited more effectively. Chemical pretreatment studies using rice residues have largely focussed on straw exploitation alone, and often at low substrate concentrations. Moreover, it is currently not known how rice husk, the more recalcitrant residue, responds to steam explosion without the addition of chemicals.

The industrial production of pomegranate juice has been favored by its alleged health benefits derived from its antioxidant properties. The processing of pomegranate juice involves squeezing juice from the fruit with the seeds and the peels together, leaving a pomace consisting of approximately 73 wt% peels. In this study, pectin was extracted from pomegranate peels, and used to produce films with different contents of montmorillonite (MMT) as a nanoreinforcement material. The nanoreinforcement improved the tensile strength and modulus of films when added at up to 6 wt%, while the further addition of MMT (to 8 wt%) reduced the reinforcement effect, probably because of dispersion problems. The elongation was decreased with increasing MMT concentrations. The water vapor permeability decreased with increasing MMT contents up to 8 wt% MMT, indicating that the increased tortuosity of the permeant path was effective on barrier properties of the film.

Pectins were extracted from pomegranate peels with citric acid, according to a central composite design with three variables: pH (2–4), temperature (70–90 °C), and extraction time (40–150 min). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was used to follow changes in material composition during the main steps of pectin extraction, and also to determine the degree of methyl esterification and galacturonic acid content of pectins produced under different conditions. Harsh conditions enhanced the extraction yield and the galacturonic acid contents, but decreased the degree of methoxylation. The optimum extraction conditions, defined as those predicted to result in a yield of galacturonic acid higher than 8 g/100 g while keeping a minimum degree of methoxylation of 54% were: 88 °C, 120 min, pH 2.5. Close agreement was found between experimental and predicted values at the extraction conditions defined as optimum.

Hemicelluloses have been extracted from wheat straw with an alkaline peroxide solution. Biodegradable films intended for food packaging have been produced from hemicelluloses mixed with glycerol and different concentrations of citric acid (as a crosslinking agent), with or without sodium hypophosphite (catalyst to the crosslinking reaction). A curing treatment at 150 degrees C has been carried out on the dried films in order to promote formation of ester bonds between citric acid and hemicelluloses. The crosslinking reaction, evidenced by FTIR spectra, improved water resistance and water vapor barrier properties of the films. On the other hand, the citric acid effects on film tensile properties were more consistent with those of a plasticizer than of a crosslinker, which might be ascribed to a flexible crosslinking. Sodium hypophosphite (SHP) did not affect the properties of crosslinked films. FTIR spectra indicated that some crosslinking reaction occurred even in a non-cured film. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

An experimental protocol to harmonize the pressure and temperature-histories of model samples treated in different individual high pressure pilot units was developed. This protocol was based on the endpoint strategy. Step zero of this protocol consisted of an exploratory measurement of the pressure, temperature-history of the pressure transmitting medium in the different chambers without the use of a container. In steps one and two of the protocol, the temperature of a sample was measured, which was placed in a container. Two types of samples were considered, a pure water sample allowing free convection (step 1) and a viscous water-based system (using a water soluble thickener) preventing free convection in the sample container (step 2).The high pressure units differed primarily in pressure build-up and pressure release times. The suggested endpoint strategy enabled the minimization of differences in temperature-histories during the pressure holding phase. Pressure, temperature-histories measured in the different high pressure units and information on the inactivation kinetics of α-amylase based systems were used to compare the process impact of different pressure, temperature-histories on the enzyme inactivation. The differences in temperature-histories significantly influenced the degree of enzyme inactivation; in particular the temperature-histories during the pressure build-up phase substantially contributed to differences in residual enzyme activity.Industrial relevanceBoth in laboratory scale studies (e.g. microorganism and enzyme inactivation) as well as in the industrial implementation, different high pressure units are being used. Different layouts (e.g. vessel volume, sensor locations etc.) are observed leading to a.o. differences in pressure build-up and release and consequently in dynamic temperature pressure time conditions in different vessels and at different locations of one single vessel. Specific attention should be given to this issue, both in conducting kinetic studies as well as in scale-up from lab-scale processes to industrial scale processes. This manuscript shows that if the same process is implemented in different units, differences in pressure temperature time conditions are observed resulting in differences in impact (shown by enzyme inactivation). These differences can be minimized using an end point strategy, i.e. when implementing protocols based on a specified endpoint condition at the start of the holding phase.

In processed fruits and vegetables, changes in texture are strongly related to transformations in cell wall polymers due to enzymatic and non-enzymatic reactions. A major challenge is how to use recent advances in processing technologies and to adjust raw materials, ingredients and processes to improve texture of processed plant based foods.This review focuses on the plant cell wall structure and the processing dependent changes in plant cell walls with focus on enzymatic and non-enzymatic degradation of pectin. Stability as well as catalytic activity of two major plant endogenous pectin degrading enzymes, namely pectinmethylesterase and polygalacturonase, towards elevated pressure and temperature is reviewed. Finally, the effect of processing on texture of plant based foods and different approaches to improve the texture of processed plant based foods (i.e. preheating, phenolics, washing/dipping/infusion pretreatments, high-pressure pretreatments and genetic modification) are discussed.

We report a novel oil-in-water emulsion that is both buoyancy and refractive index matched. The dispersion is created using low-shear cross-flow membrane emulsification technology with a discrete phase comprising a mixture of n-hexane and the perfluorinated oil tetradecafluorohexane, in the form of FC-72. Three-dimensional confocal laser light imaging of a bulk-aggregated emulsion is demonstrated, showing explicit droplet-level detail of the emulsion interior. Magnetic resonance microscopy with a spatial resolution of tens of microns is also described. The proximity of a liquid–liquid binodal in the oil mixture can give rise to a ternary phase separation reminiscent of an O/O/W emulsion.

Emulsions have applications as wide ranging as food, pharmaceuticals, oil production, printing, agrochemicals and photography. They are incorporated into a broad range of food products, and it is estimated that over 40% of processed foods contain emulsified oils or fats. The emulsified fat is includ...

Ultrasonic measurements of attenuation versus frequency were made on model systems comprising olive oil, sucrose, and tripalmitin to represent the constituents of chocolate. Corresponding measurements also were made on chocolate flowing in a pipeline at a pilot plant where the temperature, pressure, and temper of the chocolate were precisely controlled and monitored. Experimental results combined with simulation studies indicate that the effect of ultrasonic scattering from tripalmitin crystals in olive oil is modified by the addition of sucrose crystals at a high concentration. It is proposed that the presence of seed crystals in chocolate (temper) cannot be detected ultrasonically in the practical measurement range 1-12 MHz due to a similar process.

Addition of the non-adsorbing polymer hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) to oil-in-water emulsions induces flocculation via the depletion mechanism. In the present work, we report results on the delay time prior to creaming of hexadecane-in-water emulsions, flocculated by HEC. In addition, we report on oscillation rheology measurements of a comparable, density-matched system. We compare the two in the search for rheological signatures of delay, and for insight into the delay mechanism. Our results suggest that the commonly used low-frequency relaxation time does not map simply to delay time. We do, however, find that rheology can tell which of our compositions will exhibit delay, and which will not. In addition, those compositions having the greatest shear modulus have the longest delay. A simple model, in which the delay is attributed to a slow creaming stage over a very small distance, produces an acceptable correlation with the product of complex viscosity and the strain at the end of linearity. Thus the area under the linear portion of the complex viscosity–strain plot may provide a useful marker of delay time. The unexpected observation of a liquid-like regime at high oscillation frequency merits further investigation.

Ageing of thermoplastic barley and oat starches prepared by the extrusion technique was investigated. Glycerol-plasticized thermoplastic starches were stored in the rubbery state at 20 degrees C and at a relative humidity of 50% for 8 months. The ageing was followed by measurements of the tensile failure stress and strain and by characterizing thermal transitions using differential scanning calorimetry, crystallization using X-ray diffraction and small-strain viscoelastic properties using dynamic mechanical thermal analysis. The initial crystal structures and the crystallization kinetics depended on the starch origin but the ultimate crystallinities and endothermic melting transitions were the same for both starches. Mechanical relaxations observed by dynamic mechanical analysis correlated well with calorimetric grass transitions. The main mechanism underlying the changes in failure properties is suggested to be slow amylopectin crystallization. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The effects of glycerol and water content on the thermal transitions of plasticized barley starch were examined using differential scanning calorimetry. The glycerol contents studied were 14, 20, 29 and 39% and the water content, obtained by conditioning in different relative humidities, varied in the range 1-28%. On the basis of the observed calorimetric glass transition temperatures and corresponding heat capacity increments it was inferred that a single phase system occurred at low water and glycerol contents, while in other cases phase separation occurred and the system was composed of starch-rich and starch-poor phases. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis on a phase-separated sample showed mechanical loss peaks corresponding to the glass transitions of both phases. Amylopectin crystallization did not occur within 1 week of storage in mixtures having less than 20% water, indicating that glycerol interacted with starch, inhibiting crystallization of amylopectin. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.