Diversification of farming systems at plot scale is increasingly seen as an essential option to meet agriculture sustainability challenges and support agroecological transition. Significant progress has been made in recent years on methods for designing diversified cropping systems based on annual crops. However, few methods have been tested for designing diversified cropping systems based on perennial crops, and in particular perennial crop-based agroforestry systems, despite their important dietary and economic roles in the world. In this study, we argue that the characteristics of perennial crops induce specific structural and functional changes that impact the design process. We identified four key concepts for the design of diversified perennial crop-based agroforestry systems: (i) the targeted productivity must be considered over the long term and at the plot level, and encompass not only the productive and non-productive stages of perennial crops but also of associated plants; (ii) these systems will eventually face shocks and crisis in their lifetime, so they should be designed with resilience and adaptability in mind; (iii) initial designs will necessarily evolve throughout the long lifespan of perennial crops, and so a combination of de novo design from scratch and step-by-step design approaches for regeneration or transformation will be required; and (iv) due to the high complexity of these systems and the difficulty of setting up trials, the design process should draw from a range of knowledges from academics and practitioners and hybrid them. These four key features show that perennial crops offer distinct opportunities for the design of sustainable diversified cropping systems, but also face specific challenges that require more transdisciplinary research.

This study, Part 2 of a two-part series, was conducted over four years in Udon Thani, Thailand – a non-traditional rubber-growing area – to evaluate how shifting from a non-stimulated, alternate-day tapping system (T1 S/2 d2) to a stimulated (2.5% ethephon), every-third-day system (T2 S/2 d3 Stim) affects the biochemical composition, physical properties and mesostructure of natural rubber. Two clones (RRIM600 and RRIT251) were studied using dry latex films and technically specified rubber (TSR5-like and TSR10-like) samples. All indicators varied significantly with sample type. Within each sample type, clone had a stronger effect than tapping system. RRIM600 latex films had lower protein content than RRIT251, though T2 S/2 d3 Stim increased protein levels for both clones. Lipid content in films remained stable across clones and tapping systems. While the tapping system did not affect latex film properties, RRIT251 films showed higher plasticity and Mooney viscosity, while RRIM600 had higher PRI. In TSR-like samples, protein content was unaffected by clone or tapping system. However, lipid content varied: in TSR5, the highest levels were in RRIM600/T1 S/2 d2 and RRIT251/T2 S/2 d3 Stim, and the lowest in RRIM600/T2 S/2 d3 Stim and RRIT251/T1 S/2 d2; in TSR10, RRIT251/T2 S/2 d3 Stim had the highest lipid content and RRIM600/T2 S/2 d3 Stim the lowest. Tapping had limited effect on overall TSR properties, while clone significantly influenced Mooney viscosity and gel content. Principal Component Analysis confirmed that clone-driven variability was the main factor influencing sample clustering. Overall, the results emphasize the dominant role of clone selection over tapping system in determining rubber quality in non-traditional growing areas.

The resistance and resilience of soil microbial communities to an environmental disturbance are poorly documented, due to the lack on onfield diachronic experiments, limiting our ability to design adapted agroecological practices. This is especially true in rubber plantations, one of the most planted tree in tropical areas. We aimed to understand (1) how soil disturbances occurring during the rubber replanting phase affect the soil microbiome, (2) how agricultural practices combining legumes cover crops and tree logging residues shape community resilience and (3) how microbial responses vary across different edaphic contexts. In two plantations with distinct soil properties in Ivory Coast, soil microbial communities were surveyed every 6 months for 24 months after soil perturbation. Community structure, functioning and networks were described based on a 16S/18S rRNA gene investigation. Prokaryotes were generally more resistant to soil perturbation than microeukaryote communities. Prokaryotic resilience dynamics were faster than those of microeukaryotes, the latter being deeply modulated by cover treatments. These specific dynamics were exacerbated in the sandy site. Co-occurrence network modelling provided useful insights into microbial resilience trajectories. We argue that this tool should be more widely used to describe microbial community dynamics. Practices involving a combination of logging residues and legume cover crops have shown beneficial effects on the community resilience in the sandy site and appears as promising agroecological practices. However, the major influence of soil texture warns of the need to consider pedological context when designing pertinent agroecological practices.

The global demand for natural rubber emphasizes the need for increasing yield per hectare as the expansion of planting areas becomes difficult. To overcome some of the limitations related to the propagation of rubber trees through grafting, research has been carried out for years on Hevea clonal plants produced by in vitro tissue culture technology (vitroplants, VP). This study conducts a large-scale evaluation of VP across two rubber estates in Ivory Coast and Ghana. Using VP could significantly reduce the growth time of seedlings in the nursery and provide flexibility in planting schedules independent of seed availability. For 66 months, 14 ha of field trials were monitored to compare growth dynamics, stand uniformity, and trunk conicity of VP with trees from grafted plants (GP) of RRIM600 clone. The findings reveal that VP exhibited superior trunk girth at 66 months, suggesting an earlier readiness for tapping compared to GP with a more conical trunk shape, which may lead to increased latex yield. The differences in growth rates in the field between VP and GP were significantly affected by the developmental stage of the plants at planting, with VP being planted with fully developed leaves and self-rooted systems, while GP were planted with developed rootstocks but dormant buds. This enabled VP to establish more rapidly and thus reach readiness for latex tapping sooner than GP. The study underscores the importance of further research on clonal selection, acclimatization period, rootstock interactions and the yield performances of this novel planting material.

This study (Part 1) is the first of a two-part series investigating how reduced tapping frequency, combined with hormonal stimulation, impacts latex yield, as well as biochemical composition and structure (particle size) of latex in two Hevea brasiliensis clones (RRIM600 and RRIT251) over 4 years of tapping. The trial was set in Udon Thani, Thailand, a non-traditional area for rubber cultivation. Results show that the S/2 d3 ET 2.5 % Pa 0.7 tapping system significantly increased latex yield per tapping without compromising cumulative production per tree compared to the conventional S/2 d2 system. As compared to RRIM600, clone RRIT251 exhibited superior yield potential, supported by higher biochemical indicators such as sucrose, inorganic phosphorus, and reduced thiols, reflecting robust metabolic activity and antioxidant capacity in latex cells. Biochemical characterization revealed clonal differences in latex composition: RRIM600 displayed larger rubber particles and higher neutral lipid content, while RRIT251 showed higher levels of phospholipids and proteins. Despite these differences, the tapping system had minimal impact on latex biochemical properties, highlighting the role of hormonal stimulation in maintaining rubber biosynthesis. These findings emphasize the importance of clone-specific strategies in optimizing yield and resource efficiency. Furthermore, this study provides a basis for the subsequent analysis of how tapping systems and clonal variations influence the properties of latex-derived materials, including latex films and technically specified rubber samples (TSR5 and TSR10), as detailed in Part 2 of this study (Liengprayoon et al.). This research contributes to developing sustainable latex tapping practices tailored to specific clones and tapping systems.

The decomposition of crop residues plays a crucial role in nutrient biogeochemical cycles, contributing to the maintenance of soil fertility over successive replanting cycles in tropical perennial crops. In rubber plantations, the main source of natural rubber worldwide, the role of crop residues (hereafter referred to as logging residues) in nutrient cycling has been little studied. This study aimed to gain insight into the dynamics of nutrient release during the decomposition of logging residues in intensively managed rubber plantations, until their complete decay. The impact of contrasting practices of logging residue management on soil nutrient stocks was determined over 3.5 years after clearcutting. The experiment was replicated at 2 sites with contrasting soil conditions in Côte d'Ivoire. Four treatments (replicated in four blocks at each site) were set up with increasing amounts of logging residues at planting. Initial stocks of nutrients, and then decomposition rates and nutrient releases were monitored over 3.5 years after clearcutting, for leaves, twigs, branches and trunks. Soil nutrient stocks were determined in the 0-30 cm layer from clearcutting (i.e., 6 months before planting) up to three years after planting. About 94 % of the total nutrients in logging residues were released over the first three years after replanting rubber trees. All nutrient stocks in the topsoil increased drastically in the treatments with large amounts of residues. Recovery rates were calculated to evaluate soil efficiency in retaining nutrients released from logging residues: for all nutrients (except N), recovery rates were below 100 % at both sites, indicating possible nutrient losses. This indicates that further studies are necessary for a thorough understanding of the fate of nutrients originating from logging residues, particularly regarding deep drainage losses and nutrient uptake by trees. This study highlights the importance of improving practices to maximize nutrient storage and uptake such as i) uniformly spreading logging residues across the plot, ii) sowing legume cover crops and iii) planting trees as early as possible after clearcutting. Leaving logging residues on-site, either partially or fully, could reduce dependence on mineral fertilizers and promote more sustainable natural rubber production.

CONTEXT: Oil palm smallholders often have difficulty implementing good agricultural practices and replanting, and tend to obtain low yields compared to corporate plantations. A frequent strategy to improve the sustain ability of smallholder production systems is sustainable intensification, aimed at increasing land productivity and farmers' incomes. To facilitate sustainable intensification, many leading public and private sustainability initiatives require farmers to join farmer organisations as a precondition for certification and assistance, with the objective of achieving advantages of scale. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this article is to analyse the resilience of farmer organisations in the Ophir plantation when faced with replanting. We do so by linking actors, situations, and contexts relevant to collective action in five farmer cooperatives in Ophir over a 40-year period. Our aim is to offer unique insights into the enduring dynamics that influence the resilience of farmer organisations, shed light on smallholder oil palm replanting strategies, and draw several key lessons from this case.METHODS: Our findings are based on field visits by the lead author before, during and after replanting. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected to enable a holistic overview. During visits, 110 interviews with relevant stakeholders were recorded, project reports were collected, as were data on yields, costs, and other information on the functioning of the farming system. Analysis of high-resolution satellite imagery of the Ophir plantation and plantation inspections allowed us to further quantify replanting methods and replanting progress. A combined IAD-SES-NAS framework was used to structure findings and link variables, key events and context. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that farmer organisations can facilitate sustainable intensification in smallholder systems, but the resilience of farmer organisations proved diverse during replanting. Thus, farmer organisations are by no means a silver bullet for sustainable intensification. Landscape conditions, palm tree age, smallholder diversity and financial (mis)management play crucial roles in the resilience of farmer organisations and replanting strategies. Significant investment in various types of collective action is needed to encourage sustainable intensification through farmer organisations. SIGNIFICANCE: This article reports a rare holistic analysis of the bio-physical, socio-economic, and institutional aspects impacting collective action and replating in smallholder oil palm plantations. We present significant empirical data, which allows us to link 40 years of interactions between farmers, their institutions, plantations and changing contexts. Thereby we provide unique insights into farmer organisations, collective action and smallholder oil palm replanting.

This study investigates spatial-temporal trends in N2O emissions from coffee production systems in Costa Rica with a focus on the effects of nitrogen fertilisation, topography and soil type. This is done by combining (i) multiyear continuous dynamic chamber measurements from sites with different fertilisation levels, (ii) static chamber measurements taken along a typical sloping coffee field and (iii) measurements from a laboratory incubation experiment with nutrient addition to different soil types. In the field and in the laboratory, additions included standard NPK fertiliser, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) as well as potassium nitrate (KNO3). Soils in a laboratory experiment were incubated under both drained and flooded conditions. Continuous measurements from automatic chambers show that annual N2O fluxes were dominated by bursts over few weeks following N-fertilisation with peak emissions up to 60 g N-N2O ha(-1) day(-1). A two-month slope experiment with static chambers after KNO3-fertilisation with 90 kg N ha 1 showed N2O significant differences between the highest daily emission rates from the top and the bottom of the slope (134 +/- 20 g N-N2O ha(-1) and 336 +/- 104 g N-N2O ha(-1), respectively) which can be explained by NO3- transport downhill and flooded conditions favouring denitrification at the bottom of the slope. Incubation experiments indicate that denitrification is the main process controlling N2O emissions but also that nitrification can result in low N2O emission rates under drained conditions. It can be concluded that the reported N2O emissions from the coffee agroforestry systems are generally low, but may be underestimated, as both poorly drained depressions functioning as N2O hotspots as well as temporal N2O bursts need to be taken into account.

Soil erosion on agricultural land is a major threat for food and raw materials production. It has become a major concern in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations introduced on sloping ground. Alternative agroecological crop management practices must be investigated. One aim of our study was to assess the ability of logging residues (i.e., trunks, branches, leaves and stumps of a clearcut plantation) and of legume cover (Pueraria phaseoloides) to mitigate N, P and K losses through runoff and soil detachment in a young rubber plantation. The other aim was to investigate the relationships of these nutrient losses with soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity. Runoff and soil loss were monitored for 3 years using 1-m2 plots under different practices as regards the management of logging residues and the use or not of a legume. The monitoring started when rubber trees were one-year-old. The planting row, where soil was bare, was the hotspot of soil erosion, with an average runoff of 832 mm y-1 and soil loss of 3.2 kg m-2 y-1. Sowing a legume in the inter-row reduced runoff and soil loss by 88 % and 98 % respectively, compared to bare soil. Spreading logging residues as well as growing a legume cover almost eliminated runoff and soil detachment (19 mm y-1 and 4 g m-2 y-1 respectively). Nutrient losses were negligible as long as the soil surface was covered by a legume crop, with or without logging residues. Total N loss from soil detachment ranged from 0.02 to 0.2 g m-2 y-1, for example. Spreading logging residues in the inter-rows significantly improved soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity compared to bare soil. Nutrient losses from runoff and soil detachment were negatively correlated with improved soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity. We recommend investigating alternative ways to manage planting rows.

Tree logging in tropical tree plantations results in significant soil disturbances that negatively impact soil biodiversity and soil functioning. Here, we aimed to assess the effects of adding organic matter (OM) to soil after rubber tree logging on soil functioning over time. The experiment was conducted in two contrasting soil types in Ivory Coast. Four practices were replicated, including a control with no residues, the presence of legumes only, legumes and all tree parts excluding the trunk, and legumes and all the parts of the tree including the trunk. We monitored the response of soil nematode communities every six months for 24 months in each practice. Samples were collected from the topsoil layer (0–10 cm) in the interrow, and we also monitored soil carbon transformation by measuring in situ basal soil respiration, labile soil carbon and organic matter decay using the bait lamina method. The results showed a sharp decrease in nematode abundance after tree logging, but OM restoration increased nematode abundance, the relative abundance of bacterivores, and resource availability to the soil food web. The resilience of the nematode communities depended on soil conditions and the amount and quality of logging residues. Total nematode abundance was positively and significantly related to soil functioning, measured through basal soil respiration, labile soil carbon, and organic matter decay rate. The results suggest that restoring logging residues can be an effective way to restore soil biodiversity and mitigate the negative impact of clear-cutting in tropical rubber plantations.

Rubber plantations have rapidly replaced natural forests in Mainland Southeast Asia, yet the relevant impacts on the terrestrial carbon cycle remain uncertain, especially with an increase in drought frequency. Based on the meteorological and flux data from two rubber sites and one natural forest site, our study investigated the rubber ecosystem fluxes in a marginal (drier) plantation and their responses to drought 2015/2016 compared to a local natural forest, and the differences in ecosystem fluxes and their climatic drivers between the marginal plantation and a traditional humid plantation.

Rubber plantations have rapidly replaced natural forests (NFs) in Mainland Southeast Asia, yet the relevant impacts on the terrestrial carbon cycle remain uncertain especially with an increase in drought frequency. Our study compared eddy‐covariance measurements of carbon and water fluxes from two rubber monoculture plantations (at a northern marginal site and a southern traditional plantation site) with a second‐growth NF between 2015 and 2018, and their responses to a prolonged drought during 2015/2016. The NF had higher light use efficiency, water use efficiency and gross primary productivity ( GPP , 2.94 ± 0.41 kg C m −2 yr −1 ) than the northern rubber (NR) monoculture (2.45 ± 0.17 kg C m −2 yr −1 ), while lower ecosystem carbon use efficiency ( eCUE ) caused a lower net ecosystem productivity ( NEP , 0.75 ± 0.25 kg C m −2 yr −1 ) compared to the plantation (1.19 ± 0.22 kg C m −2 yr −1 ). Drought decreased the NF eCUE by 23% with significant carbon uptake restrictions across multiple seasons, while the rubber GPP reduction was only substantial in the warm‐dry season with an overall 17% decline in eCUE . The NR site's GPP was mainly controlled by soil water content throughout the year. Higher light availability offset the negative effect of drier conditions on the rubber GPP , resulting in larger carbon uptake compared to the southern plantation ( GPP , 2.12 ± 0.12 kg C m −2 yr −1 ; NEP , 1.07 ± 0.14 kg C m −2 yr −1 ). In contrast, the NF GPP was mainly restricted by vapor pressure deficit, especially during the drought.

Aims The effect of tree plantations on soil biological functions when they replace tropical forests is detrimental. However, the current trend is to repeat tree plantations on the same land after clear-cutting, with a probable strong disturbance of soil functions. We addressed this question in rubber plantations, one of the world’s most important tropical perennial crops, using soil nematode communities as an indicator of soil functioning. We hypothesised that (i) the restitution of logging residues from previous plantations will foster the resilience of the soil nematode community and (ii) this resilience will depend on soil type. Methods An experimental design with different levels of logging residues for the previous rubber plantation and legumes ( Pueraria phaseoloides ) was set up in two rubber plantations on the Ivory Coast with contrasting soil types. The response of nematodes to clear-cutting was monitored every 6 months over 24 months. Results At both sites, we observed significant decreases in nematode abundance, diversity, taxonomic composition, and ecological nematode index six months after rubber tree logging. At the clay site, practices with logging residues led to higher resilience of the total nematode abundance. The ecological indices (enrichment index) in the sandy site were more resilient with logging residue input than without over time. Conclusions Logging residues and legumes input was the most efficient practice for promoting soil nematode biodiversity and mitigating the negative impact of clear-cutting in rubber monocultures after a 40-year rotation. However, soil type determined both the level of resistance and resilience of the nematode community.

Rubber tree plantations (Hevea brasiliensis) cover large areas in the tropics. In historical producing regions like South Thailand, rubber has been planted by smallholders for three successive rotations lasting a total of 75 years. Despite possible consequences on topsoil, the long-term impacts of repeated rubber plantations on soil quality remain unknown. This study aims to better understand how various factors linked to long-term rubber land use and land use change affect topsoil physico-chemical properties and soil organic carbon (SOC) thermal stability. We focus on the effects of three factors: i. deforestation (change from forest to first rubber plantation); ii. the age of the rubber stand (immature vs. mature); and iii. long-term rubber cultivation (first, second or third successive rotation) over a chronosequence in farmers plots. Our results show that soil was deeply degraded after deforestation to a rubber plantation. Long-term rubber cultivation is also detrimental for the soil and has a more negative impact on soil physico-chemical properties and carbon dynamics, than the age of the rubber stand (e.g., on average, decrease of 50% of SOC content between forest and third rotation). At the third rotation, after 50 years of rubber cultivation, the quality of the 0-10 cm soil layer was very low, with an increase in SOC thermal stability. At this stage, logging practices upset the sustainability of the system. These impacts could be limited by less destructive practices during planting.

Nutrient management is critical for the development and growth of rubber trees during the immature phase. We present the results of a fertilizer trial during the immature phase of a rubber plantation setup in Cambodia. The main objective of this study was to analyze the response of a specific clone, PB330, in the specific conditions of one of the most important rubber-growing areas of Cambodia. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with 4 treatments and 4 replications. The four treatments consisted of 3 fertilization treatments with an increasing dose of fertilizers (respectively T1, T2 and T3) compared to a non-fertilized control (T0). The girth of trees was measured every six months from the end of the first year after planting (YAP) to the end of the 6th YAP. Results showed that fertilization had a significant effect on tree girth. At the end of the 6th YAP, fertilization had a significant effect on the number of tappable trees, and stand basal area but not on average tree girth. The most pronounced effect of fertilization was observed from annual increments in girth and stand basal area during the 3rd and 4th YAP. The effect of fertilization on tree growth was evident from all three treatments, although T3 gave the most significant increase compared to T0, increasing doses of fertilizer did not significantly improve the growth parameters. Hence, this study confirmed the importance of mineral nutrition on rubber tree growth during the immature phase even at T1, the lowest level of nutrient inputs. These results can be used to improve the standard fertilizer recommendations for immature rubber trees in Cambodia. We recommend setting up similar trials in different edaphic conditions of the country with the aim to establish nutrient management practices tailored to local biophysical constraints.

Soil erosion causes major problems of land degradation in agricultural systems leading to losses of soil fertility. Rubber tree is one of the main tropical perennial crops with about 13 million hectares of plantations worldwide in 2018. In the early stage of a rubber plantation, soil is especially vulnerable to degradations given the low canopy cover and heavy soil surface disturbance related to clear-cutting of the previous plantation. This study aims at assessing runoff and soil losses as well as understanding the main soil factors influencing soil erosion in a young rubber plantation in Côte d’Ivoire. We intensively measured soil runoff, soil detachment, soil structure maintenance and soil macrofauna for 2.5 years under different managements of logging residues and the use or not of a legume cover crop. The results showed that the restitution of logging residues has reduced runoff by 6 and soil losses by 14 compared to plot without logging residues, over the study period. The planting line where soil is kept bare was by far the most critical area in term of soil erosion. The restitution of logging residues significantly improved soil structure maintenance as well as soil macrofauna diversity. We found strong relationships between runoff, soil losses, soil structure and soil macrofauna diversity. These results evidence that the restitution of logging residues and the sowing of cover crop are appropriate agroecological practices in young rubber plantations. Our results suggest that keeping a cover in the planting line could be the most relevant lever to limit soil erosion in the context of the study.

Abstract After a Rubber plantation cycle (25 to 40 years), the greatest risk of soil degradation occurred during the replanting period which extends from the clear cutting of an old plantation to the planting of young rubber trees. During this period, the soil is subject to numerous disturbances mainly related to (1) the opening up of the environment following clear cutting (2) the export of organic matter with machines and (3) the practice of deep subsoiling by heavy machinery. These practices may affect directly or indirectly biodiversity and the delivery of soil functions (Missanjo and Kamanga-Thole 2014). To mitigate soil degradation after one or more plantation cycles, some agricultural practices are commonly used, such as the implementation of a cover crop in the inter-rows at planting (Gao et al. 2017; Liu et al. 2018). Another alternative to restore soil functions is to leave the logging residues (i.e. trunk, branches, leaves and roots of the logged plantation) on the plot, given the high amount of carbon and nutrients accumulated in the tree at the clear-cut stage (Perron et al. 2021). The positive impact of crop residues has been demonstrated on soil fauna resilience (Lassauce et al. 2012; Carron et al. 2015), soil organic carbon and nutrients (Alam et al. 2018). However, so far, this agroecological practice has never been tested in rubber plantations and the effect of the restitution of logging residues on soil functioning has never been addressed. We set up a field experiment after logging of the previous old RP in two industrial rubber plantations in Ivory Coast with contrasting soil types. In each RP, different type of logging residues and legume were added after clear cutting to determine their respective impact on the resilience of soil biodiversity. We hypothesized that (i) the input of logging residues and legumes after a clear-cutting will promote the resilience of soil biodiversity (microbial, nematode and macrofauna) (ii) soil types will affect the level of resistance and resilience of the soil biodiversity. In both sites, we observed a significant loss of soil biodiversity, 6 months after clear-cutting and land preparation. The negative impact of mechanical disturbance on the dynamics of soil biodiversity has been revealed by lower abundance, richness, beta diversity, ecological indexes and co-occurrence networks. For example, soil macrofauna density significantly dropped by 36.04 and 93.65% at sandy and clay site respectively. Macrofauna diversity decreased significantly by 60.6% at sandy site and 91.39% at clay site. Practices with logging residues contributed to higher resilience of macrofauna density (~ 360% in clay site and 300% in sandy site) and diversity (134–154% in clay site and 58-73% in sandy site) than practice without residues (75–97% in clay site and 35-38% in sandy site). The application of logging residues and legume was the most efficient practice to promote soil biodiversity and to mitigate the negative impact of clear-cutting in rubber monocultures after a 40 years’ rotation. Key words: Soil biodiversity, Rubber plantation, Restoration, Logging residues

Soil health is defined as the soil's capacity to deliver ecosystem functions within environmental constraints. On tree plantations, clear-cutting and land preparation between two crop cycles cause severe physical disturbances to the soil and seriously deplete soil organic carbon and biodiversity. Rubber, one of the main tropical perennial crops worldwide, has a plantation life cycle of 25 to 40 years, with successive replanting cycles on the same plot. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of clear-cutting disturbance on three soil functions (carbon transformation, nutrient cycling and structure maintenance) and their restoration after the planting of the new rubber crop, in two contrasting soil situations (Arenosol and Ferralsol) in Côte d'Ivoire. In this 18-month diachronic study, we intensively measured soil functions under different scenarios as regards the management of logging residues and the use or not of a legume cover crop. We investigated the relationship between soil macrofauna diversity and soil heath. At both sites, clear-cutting and land preparation disturbed carbon transformation and nutrient cycling significantly and, to a lesser extent, structure maintenance function. When logging residues were applied, carbon transformation and structure maintenance functions were fully restored within 12 to 18 months after disturbance. By contrast, no restoration of nutrient cycling was observed over the study period. A legume cover crop mainly improved the restoration of carbon transformation. We found a strong relationship (P ≤ 0.001; R2 = 0.62–0.66) between soil macrofauna diversity and soil health. Our overall results were very similar at the two sites, despite their contrasting soil conditions. Keeping logging residues in the plots and sowing a legume in the inter-row at replanting accelerated the restoration of soil functions after major disturbance caused by clear-cutting and land preparation. Our results confirm the necessity of taking soil macrofauna diversity into account in the management of tropical perennial crops.

1 CIRAD UMR Innovation, France, Montpellier, eric.penot@cirad.fr 2 UGM, Yogyakarta, Indonesia ariniwu@ugm.ac.id 3 UGM, Yogyakarta, Indonesia yekti@ugm.ac.id 4 IRRI/Bogor, Indonesia gedewibawa@yahoo.co.id 5 UPLB Philippines, Crop Institute 6 PSU, Thailande 7 MRB production division, Malaysia. 8 CIRAD Montpellier France , UMR Eco & sols 9 UGM Faculty of Forestry, Indonesia. 10 IRRI/Bogor, Indonesia 11 IRRI/Seambawa, Indonesia 12 CIRAD Montpellier France , UR ABCYSS 13 Cifor. Rome/Italy 14 UGM, Plant pathology , Yogyakarta, Indonesia 15 CIRAD UMR AGAP 16 Wageningen University 17 Yunnan University