Soil salinisation is one of the main abiotic stress factors threatening modern agriculture, with over 1.3 million hectares affected worldwide and causing a progressive loss of arable land. Tomatoes are among the most important horticultural crops globally, but its moderate salt tolerance restricts productivity in saline soils. Related wild species, such as Solanum pimpinellifolium L., which have evolved in high-salinity environments, represent a valuable resource for studying adaptive stress responses and improving cultivated tomatoes. This study compares the salt stress response of S. lycopersicum L. and S. pimpinellifolium L. to identify the processes underlying the higher tolerance in wild species. Plants were grown hydroponically in a closed-loop system using two nutrient solutions: one mimicking seawater irrigation (33 % seawater, EC = 21 dS m−1), and a salt-free control (0 % seawater, EC = 3.22 dS m−1). Phenological, morphological, biochemical, physiological and hormonal traits were assessed. Solanum pimpinellifolium L. effectively modulates the production of osmolytes and photoprotective compounds, the translocation of toxic ions, and improves leaf function which, in synergy with a more integrated and temporally coordinated hormonal network that sustain better growth, yield, and fruit quality under saline conditions. These findings provide new insights into the physiological basis of salt tolerance in wild tomato, supporting its value as a genetic resource and suggesting that seawater-based irrigation may serve as a framework for studying sustainable water management strategies.

Biochar, produced by pyrolyzing biomass under limited oxygen, can improve soil quality while supporting long-term carbon sequestration. This study compared two wheat-straw biochars (BC) made at 450 °C (BC1) and 600 °C (BC2), with a commercial hardwood biochar produced at 1280 °C (BC3) using lettuce in a sandy, nutrient-poor soil under a carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) perspective. Higher pyrolysis temperature increased fixed carbon, ash, and alkalinity and reduced volatile matter, indicating greater carbon stability (BC2 > BC1). Germination tests showed good compatibility, with BC1 performing best, likely because moderate temperatures retain more labile organic fractions. In growth-chamber trials (0.75% w/w), biochar boosted lettuce biomass and root development mainly when combined with mineral fertilization, with BC2 (25% and 59%, respectively) and BC3 (18% and 52%, respectively) yielding the strongest gains; unfertilized plants responded little, confirming that biochar is mainly a soil conditioner rather than a nutrient source. Biochar also stimulated soil enzymes linked to C, N, and P cycling and improved leaf chlorophyll, nitrogen status, and antioxidant capacity under fertilization. The nutrient profiles differed by biochar: BC1 increased K and nitrate, while BC2/BC3 lowered nitrate and BC3 enhanced Ca, Mg, and P uptake. Overall, agronomic outcomes depend on feedstock and pyrolysis temperature: mid-temperature biochars enhance productivity and soil biological activity, whereas high-temperature biochars maximize carbon permanence.

Crop evapotranspiration is a key parameter for efficient irrigation, that can be estimated by means of the standardized FAO-56 technique based on a reference evapotranspiration and on a crop-specific coefficient (Kc). The latter, however, must be experimentally measured and varies with the environmental conditions and with the crop's leaf area development over time. The experimental assessment of Kc simulates intricate soil-plantatmosphere interactions. This involves solving numerous equations that require extensive daily meteorological, crop, and substrate data over the entire growing season. Since this process demands significant time and resources, irrigation on the base of crop evapotranspiration is often disregarded. To make this method of irrigation feasible in soilless cultivation instead, we introduce a smart lysimeter composed of commercial off-the-shelf sensors, a cloud server and a lightweight IoT client that controls the irrigation duration such that the leaching fraction is kept constant. Sensor data acquired by the lysimeter is analyzed on the cloud server by means of an AI component based on a Dynamic Bayesian Network to produce a daily estimate of Kc. The AI component learns from sensor data over time to predict the evolution of Kc several days ahead and to adjust the irrigation threshold in the IoT client. Combining the Kc estimate with short-term weather forecast, the smart lysimeter can easily forecast the crop evapotranspiration and actuate an efficient irrigation, even across different geographical regions. The experiments conducted with the ornamental guelder rose (Viburnum opulus L.) under different weather conditions show that, during a Mediterranean summer, our lysimeter achieved 17% water savings in irrigation and a 64% reduction in runoff compared to manual irrigation by experienced farmers during periods of variable weather. The RMSE of Kc, averaged across all prediction horizons from one to seven days ahead, is 6.7% of full scale.

In this study, we investigate the integrative physiological basis of salt tolerance in tomato to support the identification of resilient germplasm for horticultural production under saline conditions and reduced freshwater availability. A greenhouse experiment compared one Solanum lycopersicum cultivar and five Solanum pimpinellifolium accessions under moderate and severe salinity stress, corresponding to 18% and 33% seawater in the nutrient solution, in a soilless cultivation system. These treatments were designed to simulate the prospective use of diluted seawater as an alternative irrigation source in coastal and water-scarce regions increasingly impacted by climate change. Morphological, physiological, biochemical and phenological traits were jointly analysed to identify key determinants of stress adaptation and their application for growth, reproductive development and fruit performance. An integrated multilevel analysis uncovered coordinated shifts across hormonal regulation, osmotic homeostasis, and phenological timing, suggesting a coordinated regulatory framework underlying adaptive responses. Osmolytes, flavonoids and hormones emerged as central physiological components associated with flowering dynamics and fruit set under salinity. Among the evaluated genotypes, WR10 showed the highest tolerance, maintaining shoot growth, membrane integrity and reproductive performance across the salinity stress. A predictive tolerance index based on plant height, electrolyte leakage, and stomatal conductance effectively ranked accessions and is based on simple, easily measurable traits suitable for practical screening in tomato breeding programs. These findings demonstrate that integrative physiological profiling of wild tomato species could facilitate the development of salt-resilient cultivars suited to protected and soilless horticultural systems.

Several Fusarium species have demonstrated the ability to thrive in saline soils and to tolerate or prefer high salt concentrations. In this context, the potential halophilic or halotolerant lifestyle of Fusarium pseudograminearum was investigated. Four isolates (3B, PVS-Fu 7, ColPat-1, and CBS 109956) were grown at different temperatures (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 35 °C) and NaCl concentrations (0, 7, 14, 21, and 28 g L−1), and daily growth, mycotoxin production, and K+ and Na+ accumulation within hyphae were assessed. All F. pseudograminearum isolates exhibited strong adaptability to saline conditions, with significantly enhanced growth in the presence of NaCl. All isolates accumulated Na+ within their hyphae while retaining K+. The production of deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEA) was generally suppressed following NaCl exposure, consistent with the known inhibitory effect of reduced water activity on mycotoxin biosynthesis. However, at 22 °C, two isolates, 3B and CBS 109956, showed no significant differences in ZEA production between the control (no salt) and the medium containing the lowest NaCl concentration tested (7 g L−1). Notably, isolate 3B, obtained from the halophyte Salicornia europaea, retained the highest levels of both Na+ and K+ within hyphae and showed the greatest overall adaptation to salinity. These results confirm the hypothesis that the ability of F. pseudograminearum to colonize and infect a halophytic host is indicative of a halophilic lifestyle. In the context of increasing soil salinization, these findings help identify conditions that permit pathogen persistence without hazardous mycotoxin accumulation.

Efficient irrigation management is essential to improve water-use efficiency under increasing freshwater scarcity and climate variability. However, accurate automation remains limited by the difficulty of estimating the crop coefficient (Kc), a key parameter in the FAO-56 evapotranspiration model, which typically requires periodic experimental recalibration. This paper addresses this limitation by proposing an IoT-enabled smart lysimeter architecture integrating heterogeneous industrial sensors, wireless communication, cloud-based data management, and artificial intelligence. A Dynamic Bayesian Network models Kc as a virtual sensor inferred from environmental and hydraulic measurements, enabling predictive computation of crop evapotranspiration (ETc) and adaptive irrigation threshold control. Field experiments conducted over two months under Mediterranean conditions demonstrate a 16.6% reduction in irrigation volume and a 64% decrease in runoff compared to conventional farmer-managed irrigation, while maintaining equivalent ETc. These results confirm that IoT-driven virtual sensing enables data-driven and resource-efficient irrigation management.

Innovation in cultivation methods is essential to address the growing challenges in agriculture, including abiotic and biotic stress, soil degradation, and climate change. Aeroponics, a particular type of hydroponics, presents a promising solution by improving yield and resource use efficiency, especially in controlled environments such as plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs). Additionally, non-thermal plasma (NTP), a partially ionized gas containing reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, can affect plant development and physiology, further enhancing crop production. The objective of this study was to explore the potential of NTP as an innovative method to enhance crop production by treating the nutrient solution in aeroponic systems. During this study, three experiments were conducted to assess the effects of NTP-treated nutrient solutions on baby leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) aeroponically grown indoors. The nutrient solution was treated with ionized air in a treatment column separated from the aeroponic system by making the ionized air bubble from the bottom of the column. After 2 min of NTP application, a pump took the nutrient solution from the treatment column and sprayed it on the roots of plants. Various frequencies of NTP application were tested, ranging from 2.5% to 50% of irrigation events with nutrient solution activated with NTP. Results indicated that low-frequency NTP treatments (up to 5% of irrigations) stimulated plant growth, increasing leaf biomass (+18–19%) and enhancing the concentration of flavonoids (+16–18%), phenols (+20–21%), and antioxidant capacity (+29–53%). However, higher NTP frequencies (25% and above) negatively impacted plant growth, reducing fresh and dry weight and root biomass, likely due to excessive oxidative stress. The study demonstrates the potential of NTP as a tool for improving crop quality and yields in aeroponic cultivation, with optimal benefits achieved at lower treatment frequencies.

This study explores the application of the VegSyst v3 model, developed in Spain for greenhouse soil-grown vegetable crops, to estimate dry matter production (DMP), evapotranspiration (ETc), and nutrient uptake in spring greenhouse soilless tomato in Italy. The cultivar Pisanello was chosen because it is particularly popular within the Tuscan region. The original VegSyst v3 model was calibrated to specific growing conditions in the Tuscan region for radiation use efficiency (RUE=3.90 and 2.20 after detopping instead of RUE=4.01) and crop coefficient (kc=1.45 instead of 1.00). The Almeria radiation model was used to estimate greenhouse reference evapotranspiration (ET0). New dilution curves for magnesium (Mg) and phosphorus (P), expressed by the power equation %Mg = 0.60 x DMP"(-0.200) (R2 = 0.94), and %P = 0.55 x DMP"(-150) (R2 = 0.98), were introduced. These recalibrated Mg and P curves performed better in soilless system than the original dilution curve from VegSyst v3. The calibrated model demonstrated accurate predictions for DMP, ETc, the uptake of all macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg), and the uptake concentrations throughout the tomato-crop spring seasons. Moreover, the model was also preliminarily validated in a commercial farm of soilless tomato cultivation. The recalibrated VegSyst v3 model could be incorporated into a Decision Support System (DSS) to provide recommendations to farmers in Tuscany for managing the nutrient solution composition for soilless tomato crops in greenhouses.

Efficient nitrogen fertilization is critical for maximizing crop productivity while minimizing environmental and health risks. Red beet baby leaves are valued for their vibrant color, flavor, and antioxidant content, particularly betalains, but they are also prone to accumulating antinutritional compounds such as nitrate and oxalate. Excessive nitrogen supply can exacerbate this accumulation, highlighting the need to optimize nitrate input to balance yield, nutritional quality, and safety. This study examined how different nitrate concentrations (1 mM and 10 mM NO3−) in hydroponic systems influence red beet baby leaf yield, quality, and levels of beneficial and harmful compounds. The plants were sampled at 10 and 17 days after planting (DAP), and the effects of the treatments in relation to plant age were assessed. Both sampling time and nitrate concentration significantly influenced red beet baby leaf growth and quality. Extending cultivation to 17 days improved yield and antioxidant levels (phenols, flavonoids, betalains) but also increased soluble oxalates. Low nitrate (1 mM) reduced both yield and antioxidant content, regardless of harvest time. However, after 17 days, low nitrate also lowered total oxalate levels, likely due to increased oxalate oxidase activity. Although 1 mM nitrate reduces fertilizer input, it compromises yield and quality. Therefore, intermediate nitrate levels should be explored to optimize both fertilizer use and product quality.

Abiotic stresses are considered the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, with salinity being particularly significant. Excessive salt accumulation can impair photosynthetic efficiency, disrupt nutrient assimilation, reduce growth, and lower product quality. In response to these issues, genetic improvement has focused on a limited number of tomato cultivars, significantly reducing their biodiversity. Tomato is a moderately salinity-sensitive crop widely cultivated even with poor-quality irrigation water, making it an ideal candidate for this research.An innovative in vitro screening method was developed using wild tomato seedling accessions grown on plates with sucrose-free agarized medium containing increasing concentrations of sea salt, using marine salinity as a reference. This autotrophic approach allowed us to (i) evaluate biometric and biochemical parameters while closely resembling in vivo plant behaviour, (ii) expand knowledge on biometric traits relevant to adaptation to adverse environmental conditions (salinity), (iii) define innovative phenotyping methodologies to select wild genotypes, and (iv) simultaneously analyse numerous accessions in the confined space of a growth chamber. The results from the in vitro culture screening effectively discriminated the biometric and biochemical parameters involved in salt stress resistance. Notably, the S. pimpinellifolium L. accessions investigated thus far have proven to be more resistant to salinity than traditional cultivars when grown in media enriched with 60% seawater. This study aimed to explore the existing genetic variability in wild tomato species (Solanum pimpinellifolium L.) and highlights their potential as genetic resources for developing more resilient tomato cultivars to meet future agricultural challenges posed by climate change, by enhancing the genetic diversity of contemporary cultivar.

As freshwater resources become increasingly scarce, seawater and brackish water represent alternative sources for crop irrigation, particularly in systems such as saltwater aquaponics. Red orache (Atriplex hortensis var. rubra) is a halophyte with high antioxidant content but also accumulates antinutrients like nitrate (NO3−) and oxalate. Oxalate helps plants cope with salinity stress but can cause health issues in humans. This study examined the growth of red orache baby greens in saline and nitrogen-limited hydroponic solutions to assess its adaptability and nutritional quality, focusing on the impact of salinity and reduced nitrogen on antinutrient levels. Four nutrient solutions differing in NaCl (0 or 428 mM) and NO3− (10 or 1 mM) were tested. Salinity significantly reduced red orache yield (by 75.5%), pigment levels, antioxidants, and nutrient uptake, while increasing leaf Na and oxalate concentration, ethylene production, and succulence. Salinity decreased NO3− concentration and oxalate oxidase (OxO) activity but boosted total ascorbic acid and oxalate accumulation. Low NO3− mildly reduced yield (by 25.7%), leaf area, and NO3− concentration in leaves, but had no effect on leaf moisture content, succulence, antioxidant capacity, and the concentration of antioxidants, pigments, and total oxalate. In addition, low NO3− increased OxO activity, only under non-saline conditions. The high salinity typical of aquaculture effluents strongly reduced red orache baby greens yield and quality to a greater extent than low NO3− levels. Both salinity and low NO3− reduced NO3− concentration in leaves, while salinity increased oxalate concentration, probably due to the reduced activity of OxO.

The foremost cause behind worldwide crop losses is attributed to abiotic stresses. Among them, salinity is a major concern for agriculture and is expected to play an increasingly important role as rising food demands and climate changes will inevitably lead to the greater use of marginal lands and poor-quality irrigation water. Tomato is a moderately salinity-sensitive crop which is widely used in the presence of poor-quality irrigation water without manifesting yield reduction. However, the excessive accumulation of salts can reduce photosynthetic efficiency, unbalance nutrient assimilation, reduce growth, and reduce product quality. This study was undertaken to explore the response of some varieties of Solanum lycopersicum that could be used as model systems to evaluate the performance of wild tomato ecotypes in future studies to identify genetic resources that respond adequately to climate change in the Mediterranean area. Tomato seedlings were raised in vitro on plates with sucrose-free agarized medium containing increasing concentrations of sea salt. The autotrophic conditions enabled a response resembling the plant’s behavior in vivo. The obtained results identified an interesting variety that can be used as a model for modern cultivars and concentrations, from which the behavior of some Solanum spp. can be further investigated.

With this contribution, we would like to contextualize an IoT and Artificial Intelligence project in the current work practices of greenhouse growers. The project follows the user-centered design process in the field of Human-Computer Interaction. We carried out user studies by interviewing experts competent in greenhouse work. In particular, we asked ourselves how practices, perceptions, and cognitions change following the introduction of technologies in the greenhouse. The qualitative work on the interviews allowed us to isolate some constants that will subsequently bring us to improve the usability of the technologies to support growers, taking into account their particular professional skills.

Among halophyte plants, Salicornia species (also known as glasswort or sea asparagus) are increasingly grown in open fields and greenhouses for edible or non-edible purposes. Their salinity tolerance makes it possible to irrigate Salicornia plants with saline waters and even seawater, which cannot be used by other crop species. In this work, S. europaea (L.) was cultivated in pots under the typical climatic conditions of the fall season in the Mediterranean region and irrigated with non-saline standard nutrient solution (SNS) or saline wastewater discharged from a greenhouse semi-closed hydroponic (substrate) culture of tomato or a saltwater recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) with Gilthead sea bream (Spaurus aurata L., which was used as such or after dilution (50:50) with SNS. Plant growth was not significantly affected by the composition of irrigation water, while higher antioxidant capacity (measured using the DPPH assay) and concentration of photosynthetic pigments, phenols, flavonoids, and ascorbic acid were found in the shoots of SNS plants than in those of plants irrigated with wastewater. The level of lipid peroxidation and H2O2 production significantly increased in the SNS plants, which also showed higher activity of superoxide dismutase and lower activity of catalase. These results suggest that S. europaea can be cultivated using wastewater with moderate to high salinity discharged from greenhouse hydroponic crops or RASs, and that salt is not strictly required for the growth of this species. Using non-saline nutrient solution can result in moderate oxidative stress that improves the shoot quality of S. europaea.

Over two billion people worldwide suffer from micronutrient deficiencies. Biofortifying vegetables can enhance micronutrient intake through the diet. This study assessed the biofortification of indoor-grown baby-leaf lettuce using aeroponics. Four experiments, two each, were conducted by adding different concentrations of Zn (from 10 to 450 µM) or Cu (from 3 to 250 µM) into a nutrient solution. A fifth experiment was conducted by simultaneously adding to the nutrient solution the optimal concentration of I (5 µM) and Se (13 µM), chosen on the basis of previous works, and the optimal concentration of Zn (250 µM) and Cu (150 µM), chosen on the basis of the results obtained in the first four experiments. Leaf biomass, mineral concentrations, chlorophylls, carotenoids, phenols, flavonoids, nitrates, and antioxidant capacity were measured 21 days after transplanting. Higher concentrations of Cu, Zn, I, or Se in the nutrient solution led to an increase in their concentrations in lettuce leaves, without affecting the growth or leaf quality of lettuce plants. The simultaneous application of I with the other elements induced a higher accumulation in leaves compared to when I is applied alone. One hundred grams of lettuce leaves biofortified with Se, I, Cu, and Zn would provide the 6.1%, 35.3%, and 263.0% of Adequate Intake for Cu, Se, and I, respectively, and 4.5% of Population Reference Intake for Zn. Our results suggest that simultaneously biofortifying baby-leaf lettuce with these four minerals is a practical and convenient way to integrate these micronutrients into the diet without reducing the yield or quality of lettuce.

This work describes a Decision Support System (DSS) based on SIMULHYDRO software for predicting evapotranspiration (ETc) and ion composition on the recirculating nutrient solution of two greenhouse soilless tomato crops (cv. Pis anello, a local landrace Tuscany variety, and cv. Genio, a cherry tomato). The research activity was conducted in the framework of the iGUESS-MED project. The DSS model uses the following inputs to estimate the daily ETc and the ion composition of the recirculating nutrient solution: i) the climatic parameters (air temperature, relative humidity, inside global radiation) constantly registered by the climate station OPI-EV JA, ii) the nutrient solution recipe, iii) the water ion composition, iv) the tomato nutrient uptake concentrations, and v) greenhouse dimension parameters. Soil moisture dielectric sensors (TEROS 12) were calibrated and validated for the real-time monitoring of the electrical conductivity of the substrate in the root zone. Our work conducted in the experimental greenhouse of DAFE-University of Pisa in the spring-summer 2024 period, demonstrated that this DSS model can predict evapotranspiration and optimize the fertigation in a semi-closed soilless system for the tomato crop.

Recently, there has been significant consumer demand for traditional tomato varieties due to their favourable organoleptic qualities; however, the cultivation of these ancient varieties is becoming more restricted due to inadequate shelf life and low productivity. The “Pisanello” is a Tuscany tomato variety mainly cultivated in the provinces of Pisa, Lucca, and Livorno, and the main producers of this ancient tomato are small local farmers. The purpose of this work was, firstly, to study the range of quality parameters of this landrace tomato grown using different cultivation techniques, both in soil and soilless systems. For this purpose, the physicochemical parameters of Pisanello tomatoes grown in six different farms in Tuscany using both soilless and soil methods were investigated. Secondly, Pisanello tomatoes grown using different soilless techniques (rockwool and aeroponics) and soil-grown tomatoes (Pisanello and Goldmar F1) were evaluated from organoleptic and nutraceutical points of view. The sensory profile evaluation of all types of tomatoes under investigation was carried out. The aeroponic cultivation of Pisanello induced higher organoleptic qualities than those of tomatoes cultivated in rockwool (+34% for titratable acidity and +18% for total soluble solids). On the other hand, soilless rockwool-grown tomatoes showed a better sensory profile with respect to aeroponic cultivation. Nevertheless, the Goldmar F1 tomato, morphologically similar to ‘Pisanello’, received lower scores from the sensory panel compared to the Tuscany landrace tomato. This indicates that ancient tomato varieties selected over decades remain the preferred choice for consumers. Therefore, from a long-term viewpoint, the valorisation of local tomato varieties such as Pisanello can promote the regional commercialization of novel niche products originating from ancient fruit thanks to their acceptability by consumers.

Tomatoes are globally renowned for their nutritional value and culinary versatility. However, environmental stresses, particularly salinity, present significant challenges to tomato production, impacting both yield and fruit quality. In light of these challenges, this study investigates the effect of salinity on yield and fruit quality of a local cultivar tomato named ‘Pisanello’ in a closed soilless rockwool cultivation system. Total yield, fruit size, and number were investigated in both control (10 mM of NaCl) and salinity-treated plants (salinity 1 (S1)~30 mM of NaCl and salinity 2 (S2)~60 mM of NaCl), alongside various physicochemical parameters in fully ripened tomato fruits. The results indicated a decrease in crop production with rising sodium chloride concentration in the nutrient solution (25% and 41% for S1 and S2 treatment, respectively). Conversely, salinity-treated fruits exhibited an increase in total phenolic content of +21.9% in S1 and +36.7% in S2 and in antioxidant capacity (+33.5% and +34.7%, for the S1 and S2 treatments, respectively). Salinity treatments registered in general higher quality parameters such as titratable acidity (+8.9 for S1 and +16.5% for S2), total soluble solids (+18.5% for S1 and +43.0% for S2) and fruit firmness (+30.7% for S1 and +60.3% for S2) in comparison with control tomato fruits. Sensory profile analysis further validated the preference for fresh consumption of tomato fruits grown with saline water. These findings suggests that salinity stress can enhance the nutritional quality and taste of the Pisanello tomato. Further investigation could explore the optimal NaCl concentration to balance tomato production and nutritional quality.

The paper presents the research activity done in the framework of the iGUESS-MED project with the goal to calibrate and validate a Decision Support System (DSS) implemented in the greenhouse climate station OPI-EVJA based on the climate data measured (inside global radiation, air temperature) and the model VegSyst developed from the University of Almeria. Using the measured parameters in the greenhouse, the system simulates daily biomass production, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium uptake and evapotranspiration of a tomato crop. In this work, the VegSyst model was calibrated and validated on two soilless tomato cultivations performed in the experimental greenhouse of DAFE-University of Pisa in the spring 2021 and 2022. The simulation of the total crop biomass, as well as, the uptake of N, K and Ca was adequately simulated, while for P and Mg the performance of the simulation model was lower, due probably to different soil root zone growing conditions and, in this case, a new calibration was done for both P and Mg.