Stroke and traumatic brain injury lead to upper motor neuron syndrome, which is characterized by muscle spasticity or paresis of varying severity depending on the lesion’s location and extent. Current treatments are mostly symptomatic with limited efficacy and significant side effects. Nerve transfer techniques, such as the contralateral L4 ventral root transfer in animal models and C7 root transfer in both animal and clinical studies, have been shown to reduce spasticity and improve function in upper motor neuron syndrome; however, they lack selectivity. Our hypothesis is that using a selective peripheral donor nerve from the contralateral side, rather than the entire nerve root, may represent an effective nerve transfer and provide a robust basis for future research on selective muscle reinnervation in upper motor neuron syndrome. Ten rats underwent a contralateral ulnar-to-ulnar nerve transfer procedure. Electrophysiological measurements were conducted twelve weeks post-surgery to assess successful reinnervation of the contralateral flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. Additionally, muscle biopsies of the reinnervated flexor carpi ulnaris were harvested to examine the muscle fiber type composition, cross-sectional area, and collagen content as well as compare them to naive counterparts. Axon quantification of the reinnervated nerves was also performed. All rats recovered uneventfully, maintaining the use of both paws post-surgery. Electrophysiological tests confirmed the successful reinnervation of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. Muscle fiber type composition, cross-sectional area, and collagen content did not show statistically significant changes. Axon counts indicated successful nerve regeneration without architectural disruption. In conclusion, we were able to demonstrate this novel contralateral nerve transfer model’s feasibility, reproducibility, and safety as well as achieve effective muscle reinnervation. This model provides a valuable tool for further research on selective muscle reinnervation and treatment of upper motor neuron syndrome, with potential implications for improving clinical outcomes in stroke and traumatic brain injury patients.

Goal: Transcutaneous coupling scheme for wireless powering and signal in active implants are known for more than a decade. This study aimed to investigate the in vivo behavior of this approach to drive multiple channels of an implanted peripheral nerve interfaces. Methods: The stimulation signals were transmitted through the skin over two contacts to an intracorporeal counterpart which was connected to a cuff electrode with two channels. EMG after stimulation was measured to establish recruitment curves. Results: Limitations of transcutaneous coupling were found in the feasible complexity of the system. High electrical crosstalk in a multi-channel system reduces this approach to low channel applications, such as pain treatment. No significant influence of the pulse width or extracorporeal stimulation amplitude on the electrical crosstalk was observed. Conclusions: The study's findings provide insight into the behavior of the transcutaneous coupling scheme in vivo and highlight the limitations and areas of application. Our results indicate that transcutaneous coupling schemes are a promising alternative approach for wireless powering of implants, as it does not require complex implanted electronics, expensive sophisticated electronics, and hermetic enclosures. Physical constraints, however, limit the use in highly selective nerve stimulation scenarios

Selective nerve transfers are used in the setting of upper limb amputation to improve myoelectric prosthesis control. This surgical concept is referred to as targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) and describes the rerouting of the major nerves of the arm onto the motor branches of the residual limb musculature. Aside from providing additional myosignals for prosthetic control, TMR can treat and prevent neuroma pain and possibly also phantom limb pain. This article reviews the history and current applications of TMR in upper limb amputation, with a focus on practical considerations. It further explores and identifies technological innovations to improve the man-machine interface in amputation care, particularly regarding implantable interfaces, such as muscle electrodes and osseointegration. Finally, future clinical directions and possible scientific avenues in this field are presented and critically discussed.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:Distal nerve transfers for muscle reinnervation and restoration of function after upper and lower motor neuron lesions are a well-established surgical approach. The brachialis to anterior interosseous nerve (BrAIN) transfer is performed for prehension reanimation in lower brachial plexus and traumatic cervical spinal cord injuries. The aim of the study is to shed light on the inconsistent results observed in patients who undergo the BrAIN transfer. METHODS:An anatomic dissection was conducted on 30 fresh upper limb specimens to examine the intraneural topography of the median nerve (MN) in the upper arm at the level of the BrAIN transfer and the presence of intraneural fascicular interconnections distally. RESULTS:Fascicular interconnections between the AIN and other MN branches were consistently found in the distal third of the upper arm. The first interconnection was at 3.85 ± 1.82 cm proximal to the interepicondylar line, and the second one, after further proximal neurolysis, was at 9.45 ± 1.16 cm from the interepicondylar line. Intraneural topography of the AIN at the transfer level varied, with dorsomedial, dorsolateral, and purely dorsal locations observed. CONCLUSION:Consistent fascicular interconnections between the AIN and MN branches and intraneural topography variability of the MN may lead to aberrant reinnervation.

Neuromuscular control of bionic arms has constantly improved over the past years, however, restoration of sensation remains elusive. Previous approaches to reestablish sensory feedback include tactile, electrical, and peripheral nerve stimulation, however, they cannot recreate natural, intuitive sensations. Here, we establish an experimental biological sensorimotor interface and demonstrate its potential use in neuroprosthetics. We transfer a mixed nerve to a skeletal muscle combined with glabrous dermal skin transplantation, thus forming a bi-directional communication unit in a rat model. Morphological analyses indicate reinnervation of the skin, mechanoreceptors, NMJs, and muscle spindles. Furthermore, sequential retrograde labeling reveals specific sensory reinnervation at the level of the dorsal root ganglia. Electrophysiological recordings show reproducible afferent signals upon tactile stimulation and tendon manipulation. The results demonstrate the possibility of surgically creating an interface for both decoding efferent motor control, as well as encoding afferent tactile and proprioceptive feedback, and may indicate the way forward regarding clinical translation of biological communication pathways for neuroprosthetic applications.

Zusammenfassung Hintergrund Die obere Extremität und insbesondere die Hand sind für die Interaktion des Menschen mit seiner Umwelt von entscheidender Bedeutung – schwere Verletzungen oder Amputationen gehen daher mit einem erheblichen Funktionsverlust einher und beeinträchtigen die Lebensqualität der Patienten sehr. Wenn biologische Rekonstruktionsversuche nicht zu einem ausreichenden Erfolg führen oder nicht möglich sind, kommt der bionischen Rekonstruktion eine Schlüsselrolle in der Versorgung dieser Patienten zu. Konventionelle myoelektrische Prothesen werden über zwei Signale gesteuert, die über Oberflächenelektroden im Bereich der Stumpfmuskulatur abgeleitet werden. Insbesondere bei hohen Amputationen ist die Prothesensteuerung dann nur sehr eingeschränkt und umständlich möglich. Die Operationsmethode der Targeted Muscle Reinnervation (TMR) bietet hier einen innovativen Lösungsansatz: Die großen Armnerven, die durch Amputation ihre Zielorgane verloren haben, werden auf neue Zielmuskeln im Bereich des Amputationsstumpfes transferiert. Dadurch können kognitive Steuersignale etabliert werden, welche eine deutlich verbesserte Prothesensteuerung ermöglichen. Patienten/Material und Methoden Es erfolgte eine selektive Literaturrecherche zum Thema TMR und bionische Rekonstruktion mit Aufarbeitung und Diskussion relevanter Arbeiten, unter Berücksichtigung der klinischen Erfahrungen unserer Forschungsgruppe. Zusätzlich wird ein klinischer Patientenfall vorgestellt. Ergebnisse Die bionische Rekonstruktion in Kombination mit TMR ermöglicht eine intuitive Prothesensteuerung mit simultaner Bewegung verschiedener prothetischer Freiheitsgrade und bietet zudem einen neuen Ansatz in der Therapie von Neurom- und Phantomschmerzen. Langfristiger Erfolg erfordert ein hohes Maß an Patientencompliance und intensives Signaltraining während der prothetischen Rehabilitationsphase. Trotz technologischer Fortschritte bestehen weiterhin Herausforderungen, insbesondere hinsichtlich der Signalüberleitung und der sensiblen Integration bionischer Prothesen. Schlussfolgerung Die Operationstechnik der TMR stellt einen bedeutenden Fortschritt der prothetischen Versorgung von Amputierten dar. Durch selektive Nerventransfers zur Signalmultiplikation und -amplifikation ermöglicht sie, das Potential myoelektrischer Prothesen weiter auszuschöpfen und die Therapie dieser speziellen Patientengruppe zu verbessern. Entwicklungen im Bereich der externen Prothesenkomponenten, Verbesserungen der skelettalen Anbindung durch Osseointegration und flüssigere Signalübertragung durch drahtlose, vollständig implantierte Elektrodensysteme werden sowohl hinsichtlich der Bewegungspräzision, als auch des Embodiments deutliche Fortschritte in der bionischen Rekonstruktion ermöglichen.

BACKGROUND:The upper extremity and particularly the hands are crucial for patients in interacting with their environment, therefore amputations or severe damage with loss of hand function significantly impact their quality of life. In cases where biological reconstruction is not feasible or does not lead to sufficient success, bionic reconstruction plays a key role in patient care. Classical myoelectric prostheses are controlled using two signals derived from surface electrodes in the area of the stump muscles. Prosthesis control, especially in high amputations, is then limited and cumbersome. The surgical technique of Targeted Muscle Reinnervation (TMR) offers an innovative solution: The major arm nerves that have lost their target organs due to amputation are rerouted to muscles in the stump area. This enables the establishment of cognitive control signals that allow significantly improved prosthesis control.PATIENTS/MATERIALS AND METHODS:A selective literature review on TMR and bionic reconstruction was conducted, incorporating relevant articles and discussing them considering the clinical experience of our research group. Additionally, a clinical case is presented.RESULTS:Bionic reconstruction combined with Targeted Muscle Reinnervation enables intuitive prosthetic control with simultaneous movement of various prosthetic degrees of freedom and the treatment of neuroma and phantom limb pain. Long-term success requires a high level of patient compliance and intensive signal training during the prosthetic rehabilitation phase. Despite technological advances, challenges persist, especially in enhancing signal transmission and integrating natural sensory feedback into bionic prostheses.CONCLUSION:TMR surgery represents a significant advancement in the bionic care of amputees. Employing selective nerve transfers for signal multiplication and amplification, opens up possibilities for improving myoelectric prosthesis function and thus enhancing patient care. Advances in the area of external prosthetic components, improvements in the skeletal connection due to osseointegration and more fluid signal transmission using wireless, fully implanted electrode systems will lead to significant progress in bionic reconstruction, both in terms of precision of movement and embodiment.

Negative expectations regarding nerve reconstruction in the elderly prevail in the literature, but little is known about the effectiveness of nerve transfers in patients with brachial plexus injuries aged over 60 years. We present a series of five patients (1 female, 4 male) aged between 60 and 81 years (median 62.0 years) who underwent nerve reconstruction using multiple nerve transfers in brachial plexopathies. The etiology of brachial plexus injury was trauma (n = 2), or iatrogenic, secondary to spinal surgical laminectomy, tumor excision and radiation for breast cancer (n = 3). All but one patient underwent a one-stage reconstruction including neurolysis and extra-anatomical nerve transfer alone (n = 2) or combined with anatomical reconstruction by sural nerve grafts (n = 2). One patient underwent a two-stage reconstruction, which involved a first stage anatomical brachial plexus reconstruction followed by a second stage nerve transfer. Neurotizations were performed as double (n = 3), triple (n = 1) or quadruple (n = 1) nerve or fascicular transfers. Overall, at least one year postoperatively, successful results, characterized by a muscle strength of M3 or more, were restored in all cases, two patients even achieving M4 grading in the elbow flexion. This patient series challenges the widely held dogma that brachial plexus reconstruction in older patients will produce poor outcomes. Distal nerve transfers are advantageous as they shorten the reinnervation distance. Healthy, more elderly patients should be judiciously offered the whole spectrum of reconstructive methods and postoperative rehabilitation concepts to regain useful arm and hand function and thus preserve independence after a traumatic or nontraumatic brachial plexus injury.

Distal nerve transfers to restore elbow flexion have become standard of care in brachial plexus reconstruction. The purpose of this report is to draw attention to intractable co-contraction as a rare but significant adverse event of distal nerve transfers. Here we report of treatment of a disabling co-contraction of the brachialis muscle and wrist/finger flexors after median to brachialis fascicular transfer in a 61-year-old male patient. The primary injury was an postganglionic lesion of roots C5/C6 and a preganglionic injury of C7/C8 with intact root Th1 after a motor bicycle accident. After upper brachial plexus reconstruction (C5/C6 to suprascapular nerve and superior trunk) active mobility in the shoulder joint (supraspinatus, deltoid) could be restored. However, due to lacking motor recovery of elbow flexion the patient underwent additional median to brachialis nerve transfer. Shortly after, active elbow flexion commenced with rapid recovery to M4 at 9 months postoperatively. However, despite intensive EMG triggered physiotherapy the patient could not dissociate hand from elbow function and was debilitated by this iatrogenic co-contraction. After preoperative ultrasound-guided block resulted in preserved biceps function, the previously transferred median nerve fascicle was reversed. This was done by dissecting the previous nerve transfer of the median nerve fascicle to the brachialis muscle branch and adapting the fascicles to their original nerve. Postoperatively, the patient was followed up for 10 months without a complication and maintained M4 elbow flexion with independent strong finger flexion. Distal nerve transfers are an excellent option to restore function, however, in some patients cognitive limitations may prevent cortical reorganization and lead to disturbing co-contractions.

We report a case of an intraneural ganglion cyst (INGC) of the tibial nerve at the posterior knee joint, diagnosed with ultrasound, 3 D ultrasound

Basic behaviors, such as swallowing, speech, and emotional expressions are the result of a highly coordinated interplay between multiple muscles of the head. Control mechanisms of such highly tuned movements remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the neural components responsible for motor control of the facial, masticatory, and tongue muscles in humans using specific molecular markers (ChAT, MBP, NF, TH). Our findings showed that a higher number of motor axonal population is responsible for facial expressions and tongue movements, compared to muscles in the upper extremity. Sensory axons appear to be responsible for neural feedback from cutaneous mechanoreceptors to control the movement of facial muscles and the tongue. The newly discovered sympathetic axonal population in the facial nerve is hypothesized to be responsible for involuntary control of the muscle tone. These findings shed light on the pivotal role of high efferent input and rich somatosensory feedback in neuromuscular control of finely adjusted cranial systems.

OBJECTIVE:Intrinsic function is indispensable for dexterous hand movements. Distal ulnar nerve defects can result in intrinsic muscle dysfunction and sensory deficits. Although the ulnar nerve's fascicular anatomy has been extensively studied, quantitative and topographic data on motor axons traveling within this nerve remain elusive.METHODS:The ulnar nerves of 14 heart-beating organ donors were evaluated. The motor branches to the flexor carpi ulnaris (FCU) and flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) muscles and the dorsal branch (DoBUN) as well as 3 segments of the ulnar nerve were harvested in 2-cm increments. Samples were subjected to double immunofluorescence staining using antibodies against choline acetyltransferase and neurofilament.RESULTS:Samples revealed more than 25,000 axons in the ulnar nerve at the forearm level, with a motor axon proportion of only 5%. The superficial and DoBUN showed high axon numbers of more than 21,000 and 9300, respectively. The axonal mapping of more than 1300 motor axons revealed an increasing motor/sensory ratio from the proximal ulnar nerve (1:20) to the deep branch of the ulnar nerve (1:7). The motor branches (FDP and FCU) showed that sensory axons outnumber motor axons by a ratio of 10:1.CONCLUSIONS:Knowledge of the detailed axonal architecture of the motor and sensory components of the human ulnar nerve is of the utmost importance for surgeons considering fascicular grafting or nerve transfer surgery. The low number of efferent axons in motor branches of the ulnar nerve and their distinct topographical distribution along the distal course of the nerve is indispensable information for modern nerve surgery.

The peroneal nerve is one of the most commonly injured nerves of the lower extremity. Nerve grafting has been shown to result in poor functional outcomes. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare anatomical feasibility as well as axon count of the tibial nerve motor branches and the tibialis anterior motor branch for a direct nerve transfer to reconstruct ankle dorsiflexion. In an anatomical study on 26 human body donors (52 extremities) the muscular branches to the lateral (GCL) and the medial head (GCM) of the gastrocnemius muscle, the soleus muscle (S) as well as the tibialis anterior muscle (TA) were dissected, and each nerve's external diameter was measured. Nerve transfers from each of the three donor nerves (GCL, GCM, S) to the recipient nerve (TA) were performed and the distance between the achievable coaptation site and anatomic landmarks was measured. Additionally, nerve samples were taken from eight extremities, and antibody as well immunofluorescence staining were performed, primarily evaluating axon count. The average diameter of the nerve branches to the GCL was 1.49 ± 0.37, to GCM 1.5 ± 0.32, to S 1.94 ± 0.37 and to TA 1.97 ± 0.32 mm, respectively. The distance from the coaptation site to the TA muscle was 43.75 ± 12.1 using the branch to the GCL, 48.31 ± 11.32 for GCM, and 19.12 ± 11.68 mm for S, respectively. The axon count for TA was 1597.14 ± 325.94, while the donor nerves showed 297.5 ± 106.82 (GCL), 418.5 ± 62.44 (GCM), and 1101.86 ± 135.92 (S). Diameter and axon count were significantly higher for S compared to GCL as well as GCM, while regeneration distance was significantly lower. The soleus muscle branch exhibited the most appropriate axon count and nerve diameter in our study, while also reaching closest to the tibialis anterior muscle. These results indicate the soleus nerve transfer to be the favorable option for the reconstruction of ankle dorsiflexion, in comparison to the gastrocnemius muscle branches. This surgical approach can be used to achieve a biomechanically appropriate reconstruction, in contrast to tendon transfers which generally only achieve weak active dorsiflexion.

Objective: Nerve transfer surgery is a well-established and commonly used surgical treatment option for peripheral nerve injuries and root avulsion injuries when direct coaptation is impossible. Matching motor fiber counts of the recipient and the donor nerve is important for successful nerve transfers. While a quantitative analysis of the brachial plexus' motor and sensory axons has been recently reported, similar data for the lumbosacral plexus does not exist. In this study, we aimed to analyze the motor and sensory fiber counts of nerves arising from the lumbosacral plexus.

The causes for large ventral hernia formation range from incisional hernias to fulminant peritonitis to malignant tumor resection and require specific evaluation of the patient's situation. Prolonged time to reconstruction as well as a high number of surgical interventions can lead to a condition referred to as "loss of domain" with non-compliant, retracted musculofascial compartments of the abdominal wall and a large portion of the intestines pushed into the hernia sac or the need of skin grafting the intestinal block. 1 Parker S.G. et al. What exactly is meant by "loss of domain" for ventral hernia? Systematic review of definitions. World J Surg. 2019; 43: 396-404 Crossref PubMed Scopus (45) Google Scholar

The surgical redirection of efferent neural input to a denervated muscle via a nerve transfer can reestablish neuromuscular control after nerve injuries. The role of autonomic nerve fibers during the process of muscular reinnervation remains largely unknown. Here, we investigated the neurobiological mechanisms behind the spontaneous functional recovery of denervated facial muscles in male rodents. Recovered facial muscles demonstrated an abundance of cholinergic axonal endings establishing functional neuromuscular junctions. The parasympathetic source of the neuronal input was confirmed to be in the pterygopalatine ganglion. Furthermore, the autonomically reinnervated facial muscles underwent a muscle fiber change to a purely intermediate muscle fiber population myosin heavy chain type IIa. Finally, electrophysiological tests revealed that the postganglionic parasympathetic fibers travel to the facial muscles via the sensory infraorbital nerve. Our findings demonstrated expanded neuromuscular plasticity of denervated striated muscles enabling functional recovery via alien autonomic fibers. These findings may further explain the underlying mechanisms of sensory protection implemented to prevent atrophy of a denervated muscle. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Nerve injuries represent significant morbidity and disability for patients. Rewiring motor nerve fibers to other target muscles has shown to be a successful approach in the restoration of motor function. This demonstrates the remarkable capacity of the CNS to adapt to the needs of the neuromuscular system. Yet, the capability of skeletal muscles being reinnervated by nonmotor axons remains largely unknown. Here, we show that under deprivation of original efferent input, the neuromuscular system can undergo functional and morphologic remodeling via autonomic nerve fibers. This may explain neurobiological mechanisms of the sensory protection phenomenon, which is because of parasympathetic reinnervation.

INTRODUCTION:Neuromuscular control of the facial expressions is provided exclusively via the facial nerve. Facial muscles are amongst the most finely tuned effectors in the human motor system, which coordinate facial expressions. In lower vertebrates, the extracranial facial nerve is a mixed nerve, while in mammals it is believed to be a pure motor nerve. However, this established notion does not agree with several clinical signs in health and disease. OBJECTIVES:To elucidate the facial nerve contribution to the facial muscles by investigating axonal composition of the human facial nerve. To reveal new innervation pathways of other axon types of the motor facial nerve. METHODS:Different axon types were distinguished using specific molecular markers (NF, ChAT, CGRP and TH). To elucidate the functional role of axon types of the facial nerve, we used selective elimination of other neuronal support from the trigeminal nerve. We used retrograde neuronal tracing, three-dimensional imaging of the facial muscles, and high-fidelity neurophysiological tests in animal model. RESULTS:The human facial nerve revealed a mixed population of only 85% motor axons. Rodent samples revealed a fiber composition of motor, afferents and, surprisingly, sympathetic axons. We confirmed the axon types by tracing the originating neurons in the CNS. The sympathetic fibers of the facial nerve terminated in facial muscles suggesting autonomic innervation. The afferent fibers originated in the facial skin, confirming the afferent signal conduction via the facial nerve. CONCLUSION:These findings reveal new innervation pathways via the facial nerve, support the sympathetic etiology of hemifacial spasm and elucidate clinical phenomena in facial nerve regeneration.

Introduction: Many adults who had a severe Narakas IV obstetric brachial plexus injury (OBPI) suffer from extensive impairments in daily living due to limited hand-arm function. The dramatic loss of axonal support at this very early age of development often render the entire extremity a biologic wasteland and reconstructive methods and therapies often fail to recover any functional hand use. In this scenario bionic reconstruction, including an elective amputation and a subsequent prosthetic fitting, may enable functional improvement in adults suffering from the consequences of such severe brachial plexus injuries. We here describe our experience in treating such patients and lay out the surgical rational and rehabilitation protocol exemplified in one patient. Case Presentation/Methods: A 27-year-old adult with a unilateral OBPI contacted our center. He presented with globally diminished function of the affected upper extremity with minimal hand activity, resulting in an inability to perform various tasks of daily living. No biological reconstructive efforts were available to restore meaningful hand function. An interdisciplinary evaluation, including a psychosocial assessment, was used to assess eligibility for bionic reconstruction. Before the amputation and after the prosthetic fitting functional assessments and self-reported questionnaires were performed. Results: One month after the amputation and de-rotation osteotomy of the humerus the patient was fitted with a myoelectric prosthesis. At the 1.5 year-follow-up assessment, the patient presented with a distinct improvement of function: the ARAT improved from 12 to 20 points, SHAP score improved from 8 to 29, and the DASH value improved from 50 to 11.7. The average wearing times of the prosthesis were 5 to 6 h per day (on 4–5 days a week). Discussion: The options for adults suffering from the consequences of severe OBPIs to improve function are limited. In selected patients in whom the neurological deficit is so severe that biologic hand function is unsatisfactory, an elective amputation and subsequent restoration of the hand with mechatronic means may be an option. The follow-up results indicate that this concept can indeed lead to solid hand function and independence in daily activities after amputation, subsequent prosthetic fitting, and rehabilitation.

Deficiency of the knee extensor mechanism may result from severe injury, loss of structural tissues after tumor resection or complications due to joint replacement surgery. Current treatment options for extensive defects are limited, yielding unsatisfactory functional results and high complication rates. Here, we propose for the first time the use of a free vascularized tissue transfer to reconstruct the extensor mechanism of the knee. The tensor fasciae latae free flap provides sufficient vascularized muscle and fascia as well as a large skin paddle. We present the anatomical concept and long-term outcomes in a patient.

BACKGROUND:After limb loss, it is the surgeon's task to provide the patient with a pain-free and resilient residual limb. Particularly in the upper extremity, there is an additional functional aspect, as appropriate muscle signals are needed to control myoelectric prostheses. Surgical management of peripheral nerves within the residual limb plays a central role both in terms of pain treatment as well as functional human-machine interfacing. OBJECTIVES:The presentation of current surgical procedures for dealing with peripheral nerves after limb amputation. MATERIAL AND METHODS:A literature search is carried out regarding the surgical prophylaxis and therapy of neuroma and phantom limb pain, as well as techniques to improve the functional interface between residual limb and prosthesis. Practical recommendations are formulated based on relevant literature, as well as the experiences of the authors. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS:There is a large number of different surgical techniques, particularly for the management of painful neuromas. Of the conventional methods, intramuscular implantation of the terminal nerves is commonly used with good results. Newer techniques such as targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) and the regenerative peripheral nerve interface (RPNI) aim for the first time to provide functional end organs to the nerve even after amputation. In addition to the improved control of myoelectric prostheses, these methods further show excellent results for treatment and prevention of neuroma and phantom limb pain.