Two essential oils derived from Lavandula angustifolia and Lavandula × intermedia were investigated for any antiparasitic activity against the human protozoal pathogens Giardia duodenalis and Trichomonas vaginalis and the fish pathogen Hexamita inflata: all of which have significant infection and economic impacts. The study has demonstrated that low (≤1%) concentrations of L. angustifolia and L. × intermedia oil can completely eliminate T. vaginalis, G. duodenalis and H. inflata in vitro. At 0.1% concentration, L. angustifolia oil was found to be slightly more effective than L × intermedia oil against G. duodenalis and H. inflata. The potential applications are discussed.

Undergraduate education in the health professions is intended to produce competent health professional graduates. Infection prevention and control (IPC) is a necessary element of daily practice in many health professions, to safeguard patients and staff, however previous research has established poor knowledge and implementation of IPC precautions despite escalating rates of potentially lethal healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) across the globe. This paper will discuss three key areas of influence for graduates' IPC knowledge, intentions and practice: perceptions of science, health behaviour beliefs (perceived risk and self-efficacy) and applied knowledge (microbiology). To date, each of these areas have been researched individually however there is an urgent need for improved synthesis and integration of these factors in curriculum planning and design, both inside and outside the classroom, to enhance the development of competent, work-ready graduates.

Substantial complementary medicines (CAM) use is reported worldwide. Australian consumers use CAM for health maintenance, minor self-limiting disease states, and also for chronic conditions. The increasing use of CAM has required pharmacists to become increasingly more knowledgeable about CAM and the ethics of CAM recommendation. When the first Australian non-metropolitan pharmacy program was started at Charles Sturt University, in 1997, it was decided to incorporate two innovative courses to assist rurally educated students to engage with health consumers who expect pharmacists to be able to assist them with CAM. This discussion traces and reflects on the development, implementation and current situation of the Complementary Medicines for Pharmacy course. Over time, this course has evolved from a final year elective with a focus on familiarization to a mandated course with a phytomedicine focus to an integrated topic in final year with a focus on evidence, quality of evidence and professional decision-making demonstrated in a reflective professional portfolio. Of potentially greater importance, however, has been the introduction of complementary medicines as a topic in every year of the course with the goal of facilitating effective professional engagement with health consumers.

Background: The microbiology component of Australian undergraduate nursing programmes varies considerably. Any actual or potential impact of this variation on infection control practice, as a nursing graduate, is relatively unknown. Aims: The aim of this study was to explore infection control professionals' perceptions of the importance of microbiology and infection control training in undergraduate nursing curricula and the perceived retention of that knowledge and its transferability to practice. Method: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight infection control professionals from a range of hospital settings in Australia. Findings: Four main themes emerged: Theory versus practice, importance of role modelling, disjunction between university curricula and the real world,' and learning in context. Conclusion: As the underpinning element of infection control practice, the role of microbiology education and training in nursing education will benefit from review. Further discussions about the nature and timing of theoretical microbiology content and assessment of undergraduate students' microbiology knowledge to ensure retention and appropriate application of that knowledge in practice are urgently needed.

Two known serotypes of equine adenovirus (EAdV), equine adenovirus type 1 (EAdV-1) and equine adenovirus type 2 (EAdV-2) have been isolated from horses. EAdV-1 is predominantly associated with upper respiratory tract infections while EAdV-2 appears to be associated with gastrointestinal infections in horses. In this report the EAdV-1 genome has been sequenced for the first time. The EAdV-1 genome encoded genes are characteristic of the Mastadenovirus genus such as protein V and IX. Unexpectedly, phylogenetic reconstructions also revealed a close relationship between EAdV-1 and two recently characterized bat adenoviruses. The results of this study suggest that EAdV-1 may share a common ancestor with canine and bat adenoviruses.

Educational technology implementation often owes more to the technical proficiency of the teaching staff and/or the capacity of the institution than to a student outcome-centred design process. Creation of online resources takes considerable time and involves significant cost to both the institution, for devices and platforms, and to students for devices and Internet connectivity charges. Here, we present a cross-discipline investigation of student engagement with a range of simple resources. Our aim was to determining if the provision of such resources had an impact on student academic performance regardless of the students' level of academic proficiency. This research focused on students studying first-year introductory subjects at a distance (off campus) from two different faculties, Arts and Science. Analysis of the web access data from the learning management system (Sakai) demonstrated that students who accessed the most resources in terms of diversity and percentage of available resources achieved higher grades. We postulate that the resources prompted students to spend more '' time-on-task '' and facilitate more active styles of learning. We suggest, however, that students need to be made aware of the value of the resources and how they are best used to enhance academic performance.

There are currently two known serotypes of equine adenovirus (EAdV), equine adenovirus type 1 (EAdV1) and equine adenovirus type 2 (EAdV2); EAdV1 is predominantly associated with upper respiratory tract infections while EAdV2 appears to have a higher association with gastrointestinal infection, however, very little is known about the prevalence of these viruses in horse populations in Australia. In this study we tested 122 serum samples obtained from horses in New South Wales, Australia, using a standard serum neutralization (SN) assay and ELISA. Ninety-seven of the 122 sera displayed had moderate to high titers of antibodies to EAdV1 and/or EAdV2. Eighteen of the 122 sera were positive for both EAdV1 and EAdV2. In contrast, only thirty-seven positive samples were detected using the ELISA. These results suggest that EAdV1 and EAdV2 infections are widely prevalent in the horse population tested and that SN is currently the most suitable assay for the detection of EAdV1 and EAdV2 antibodies in equine serum.

A variety of assays were utilized to determine the effects of Leptospermum petersonii essential oil on both Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. Hyphal morphology, susceptibility of spheroplasts and uptake of propidium iodide following exposure to the oil suggest that the mode of action of L. petersonii essential oil is through direct disturbance of the fungal cell membrane. Data also confirms that the volatile component of the oil is highly antifungal, independent of direct contact between the liquid oil and the fungal membrane. The degree of inhibition was greater when fungi were directly exposed to oil volatiles compared to pre-inoculation exposure of oil volatiles into the agar. It is likely that the essential oil volatiles are acting both directly and indirectly on the fungi to produce growth inhibition.

OBJECTIVESThis study investigates the volatile (vapour) component of an essential oil derived from the Australian native Leptospermum petersonii as a potential treatment for aspergillosis.METHODSThe in vitro antifungal effects of the volatiles were assayed by a variety of methods. In vitro mammalian cell toxicity of the oil and the oil volatiles was also determined prior to animal testing. Efficacy of the volatiles in vivo was assessed using a murine model.RESULTSL. petersonii oil volatiles were found to be potent inhibitors of fungal growth in vitro, with fungicidal activity displayed following short exposure times (< or =1 h). No significant mammalian cell toxicity was found to be associated with the volatiles. In the absence of treatment, Aspergillus fumigatus infection of animals resulted in an increase in inflammatory cell counts and high fungal burden within the lung tissue. Chitin levels in treated animals were significantly reduced compared with control animals. No viable fungi could be recovered from animals that had completed the treatment regimen.CONCLUSIONSThe significant reduction in fungal burden in the lungs of infected animals by the volatiles of L. petersonii oil was larger than that reported for conventional antifungal drugs of choice.

This study evaluated the effects of an essential oil mouthwash on radiation induced mucositis of the oropharyngeal area during treatment for head and neck cancers. Nineteen adult patients completed the randomized placebo controlled trial which involved the use of a gargle containing 2 drops of a 1:1 mix of the essential oils of manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) in water. Those in the essential oil gargle group were observed to have a delayed onset of mucositis and reduced pain and oral symptoms relative to placebo (gargling with water) and the control ('usual care') groups. In addition those in the essential oil group were seen to have less weight loss (1% loss) than the other two groups (control 2.5%, placebo 4.5%). However a significant limitation in this study was the small sample size. Although the results from this feasibility study support the hypothesis that very small volumes of manuka and kanuka used in a gargle can provide a positive effect on the development of radiation induced mucositis, further research is required to confirm this finding. Randomization was applied according to the timing of the patient's entering the trial as well as their physical ability to gargle. Confirmation of these findings would pave the way for introduction of a simple, yet effective treatment for a condition which causes considerable discomfort and for which there is currently no definitive treatment.

There has been an increasing interest in essential oils during recent years because of the need of new therapies against microbes. Bacterial resistance is spreading throughout the world primarily due to excessive use of antibiotics and poor infection control practices in hospitals, making it one of our times biggest issues. In this study, the volatile oils of Syzygium aromaticum, Thymus serpyllum, Lavandula angustifolia and Lavandula x intermedia were assessed for antimicrobial activity using the microatmosphere method. An assay was also performed to determine how different exposure times to essential oils effected the inhibition of microbes. The oils were tested against five organisms; methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pyogenes and Candida albicans. The results showed considerable variability in the size of zone of inhibition depending which oil was used and no essential oil was observed to be the “best” against all organisms. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the only bacterium not susceptible for any of the tested oils and C. albicans was the only microorganism that was susceptible to essential oils after an exposure time of 6 h. This study demonstrated that the volatiles from the tested essential oils have good antimicrobial effects.

In this study the antifungal activity of eight essential oils and three hydrosols (aqueous distillates) from Australian grown lavenders was determined. The oils and hydrosols were assayed against four fungi, Aspergillus nidulans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Leptosphaeria maculans and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, using a disc diffusion method. No evidence of antifungal activity was observed with any of the hydrosols. In contrast, all oils displayed some antifungal activity. Lavandula angustifolia and the three examples of Lavandula x intermedia oil demonstrated the greatest effect against A. nidulans and T mentagrophytes while L. stoechas was particularly effective against the two agricultural fungi, L. maculans and S. sclerotiorum. No significant difference was observed between the antifungal activity of L. angustifolia oils derived from European and Australian grown plants. These results suggest that the oils from various Lavandula species may be useful in the treatment of fungal infections.

We aimed to increase the efficiency of adenoviral vectors by limiting adenoviral spread from the target site and reducing unwanted host immune responses to the vector. We complexed adenoviral vectors with DDAB-DOPE liposomes to form adenovirus-liposomal (AL) complexes. AL complexes were delivered by intratumoral injection in an immunocompetent subcutaneous rat tumor model and the immunogenicity of the AL complexes and the expression efficiency in the tumor and other organs was examined. Animals treated with the AL complexes had significantly lower levels of p-galactosidase expression in systemic tissues compared to animals treated with the naked adenovirus (NA) (P < 0.05). The tumor to non-tumor ratio of P-galactosidase marker expression was significantly higher for the AL complex treated animals. NA induced significantly higher titers of adenoviral-specific antibodies compared to the AL complexes (P < 0.05). The AL complexes provided protection (immunoshielding) to the adenovirus from neutralizing antibody. Forty-seven percent more p-galactosidase expression was detected following intratumoral injection with AL complexes compared to the NA in animals pre-immunized with adenovirus.Conclusions: Complexing of adenovirus with liposomes provides a simple method to enhance tumor localization of the vector, decrease the immunogenicity of adenovirus, and provide protection of the virus from pre-existing neutralizing antibodies. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Interest in the antifungal activity of essential oils has increased markedly in recent years. The volatile (vapour) components of several essential oils have been demonstrated to have potent antifungal activity, often in excess of that displayed in direct contact assays. A lack of consistent methodology and reporting, however, hinders direct comparison of publications. A variety of mechanisms have been suggested for the activity of these active volatiles against hyphate fungi. This paper briefly reviews some of the more recent data and identifies areas that require standardization and further study.

Although there is considerable anecdotal information about the antibacterial activity of lavender oils, much of this has not been substantiated by scientific or clinical evidence. In this study we assessed the activity of lavender essential oils, hydrosols and aqueous and ethanolic foliage extracts from a range of Australian grown Lavandula species. The results support the anecdotal use of lavender oils as antibacterial agents and demonstrated that some oils which had previously not been investigated (e.g., Lavandula heterophylla) display good antibacterial activity against a range of bacteria including Streptococcus pyogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA, Citrobacter freundii, Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, VRE and Propionibacterium acnes. Pseudomonas aeruginosa was the only bacterium not susceptible to any essential oil. There was considerable variability in the activity of the essential oils however; no one oil produced the highest level of antibacterial activity against all bacteria. No correlation was observed between the percentage of major chemical components and antibacterial activity. The lavender hydrosols and aqueous foliage extracts did not have any antibacterial activity. Six of the ethanolic extracts displayed activity against Pr. vulgaris but no activity against any other organism. Further work is required to determine whether these in vitro results will be realised in a clinical environment but it is clear that not all lavenders are equal in terms of their antibacterial properties.

The disc diffusion assay is often used for screening of essential oils for antimicrobial activity. In this paper we describe an investigation into whether differences exist in the zone of inhibition obtained with two agar types; IsoSensitest and nutrient agar. Standard disc diffusion assay was performed using both agar types using three essential oils against two bacteria and one yeast. Statistically significant differences in the size of zone of inhibition were recorded for the two agar types however differences were not found consistently across essential oil or organism types. These data suggest that there is a complex interaction between bacteria, the oil being assayed and agar type and that no generalizations about the superiority of one agar or another can be made.

The objective of this study was to determine the cytotoxic effect of four Thai edible plants using Hep2 cells. These four plants namely Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Meliaceae), Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schltr. (Zingiberaceae), Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr. (Menispermaceae) and Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. (Bignoniaceae) were extracted with 95% ethanol and tested for cytotoxic effects. The cytotoxic activity was determined by anti-prolifer ative effects on Hep2 cells. Cell proliferation was measured using a colorimetric method based on the ability of metabolic active cells to cleave the yellow tetrazolium salt XTT to an orange formazan dye. The soluble formazan dye was directly quantified using a scanning multiwell spectrophotometer (ELISA plate reader). A dose response assay with the extracts was carried out to determine the maximum effective dilution. The results showed that three plants, A. indica , B. pandurata , and C. fenestratum , exhibited high cytotoxic activity against the Hep2 cell lines at a minimum concentration of 0.05% in ethanol extract. In addition, C. fenestratum demonstrated the most potent cytotoxic extract based on its lowest IC50 (5 μg/mL).