Context: The COVID-19 pandemic has been affecting health and economies across the world, although the nature of direct and indirect effects on Asian agrifood systems and food security has not yet been well understood. Objectives: This paper assesses the initial responses of major farming and food systems to COVID-19 in 25 Asian countries, and considers the implications for resilience, food and nutrition security and recovery policies by the governments. Methods: A conceptual systems model was specified including key pathways linking the direct and indirect effects of COVID-19 to the resilience and performance of the four principal Asian farming and food systems, viz, lowland rice based; irrigated wheat based; hill mixed; and dryland mixed systems. Based on this framework, a systematic survey of 2504 key informants (4% policy makers, 6% researchers or University staff, 6% extension workers, 65% farmers, and 19% others) in 20 Asian countries was conducted and the results assessed and analysed. Results and conclusion: The principal Asian farming and food systems were moderately resilient to COVID-19, reinforced by government policies in many countries that prioritized food availability and affordability. Rural livelihoods and food security were affected primarily because of disruptions to local labour markets (especially for off-farm work), farm produce markets (notably for perishable foods) and input supply chains (i.e., seeds and fertilisers). The overall effects on system performance were most severe in the irrigated wheat based system and least severe in the hill mixed system, associated in the latter case with greater resilience and diversification and less dependence on external inputs and long market chains. Farming and food systems' resilience and sustain ability are critical considerations for recovery policies and programmes, especially in relation to economic performance that initially recovered more slowly than productivity, natural resources status and social capital. Overall, the resilience of Asian farming and food systems was strong because of inherent systems characteristics reinforced by public policies that prioritized staple food production and distribution as well as complementary welfare programmes. With the substantial risks to plant-and animal-sourced food supplies from future zoonoses and the institutional vulnerabilities revealed by COVID-19, efforts to improve resilience should be central to recovery programmes. Significance: This study was the first Asia-wide systems assessment of the effects of COVID-19 on agriculture and food systems, differentiating the effects of the pandemic across the four principal regional farming and food systems in the region.

Increasing agricultural production, without having a pronounced negative impact on ecosystems, continues to be a massive challenge. Interventions in sustainability that improve agro-ecosystems are thus crucial. Current literature focuses on sustainability concepts, assessment tools, and intervention impacts, yet lacks in intervention mechanisms and implementation processes. Therefore, this study aims to present an intervention framework on agro-ecosystems that helps transform sustainability concepts into implementation actions. We first create the intervention framework on agro-ecosystems using a systematic approach, and then analyze the intervention mechanism. Next, we formulate the agro-ecological sustainability index (AESI) and its sub-indices to assess the results of interventions. We find that, by integrating interventions, we can reverse the sustainability trend from deterioration to recovery and improvement; however, with a spatial difference. We highlight that the process for a successful intervention comprises (1) utilizing an integrated intervention portfolio, (2) acting with a long-term perspective, (3) utilizing adaptive implementation, and (4) strengthening local institutions. We suggest closely monitoring the impact of interventions, diversifying farmers' income sources, and enhancing capacity building for young generations. Additionally, we suggest conducting multidisciplinary research and strengthening local government capacity to hedge against future risks. Our intervention framework and Yunnan's intervention experience provides a useful lesson for other policymakers and researchers to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals.

The farming systems in the mountain areas of Kyrgyzstan are primarily characterised by small-scale crop and livestock activities. Farmers are faced with several environmental, socio-economic and political challenges and constraints that result in significant uncertainties affecting their operations. This paper attempts to model how various sources of uncertainty collectively affected the smallholders’ farm incomes during a mid-term horizon using Monte Carlo simulation. The analyses were based on data collected through a survey of 235 smallholder farms in the medium and high-elevation mountains ranges and expert interviews. We defined a static and a dynamic scenario, the latter of which incorporating likely adjustments in land use and production methods by farmers in response to changing prices and factor costs. Our results suggest that to benefit from improving market opportunities, farmers should adjust and modify their farm management by expanding cash crops in the medium-elevation ranges or increasing herd sizes and fodder cultivation in high-altitude ranges. Results also indicate that farmers in the medium elevations benefit more from these opportunities than farmers in higher altitudes. The paper concludes with some practical recommendations for agricultural policy making in Kyrgyzstan.

Subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest (EBLF) is a widespread vegetation type throughout East Asia that has suffered extensive deforestation and fragmentation. Selection and successful propagation of native tree species are important for improving ecological restoration of these forests. We carried out a series of experiments to study the propagation requirements of indigenous subtropical tree species in Southwest China. Seeds of 21 tree species collected from the natural forest were materials for the experiment. This paper examines the seed germination and seedling growth performance of these species in a nursery environment. Germination percentages ranged from 41% to 96% and were ≥50% for 19 species. The median length of germination time (MLG) ranged from 24 days for Padus wilsonii to 144 days for Ilex polyneura. Fifteen species can reach the transplant size (≥15 cm in height) within 12 months of seed collection. Nursery-grown seedlings for each species were planted in degraded site. Two years after planting, the seedling survival rate was >50% in 18 species and >80% in 12 species. Based on these results, 17 species were recommended as appropriate species for nursery production in forest restoration projects. Our study contributes additional knowledge regarding the propagation techniques for various native subtropical tree species in nurseries for forest restoration.

The upland grasslands and meadows are one of the most important natural resources in Kyrgyzstan, covering up to 85 % of the designated agricultural areas. Most of the crop and livestock based small scale farms are located there, faced with degradation and loss of biodiversity due to overgrazing. Hence, proper pasture land management is one of the key issues to ensure long-term productivity for the farmers in the region. To increase proper management on pasture land, regulations to avoid overgrazing were enforced by the government, however, without much success until now. One of the main reasons for little success is the lack of knowledge about the prevailing small scale farming systems – their production systems, their resource management, their household economy and food security status and about the objectives and targets of the farm families. Agricultural research largely focuses, like during soviet time, on the economic development of large scale farming. The present work focuses on developing the appropriate classification methodology to characterise and identify prevailing farming systems in the lower and middle elevation mountain pastures, in order to assess productive management methods of pasture land and other resources to ensure sustainable development pathways for the small family-based farms. The paper focuses on the characteristics and differences of the identified ‘Postsowjet Jailoo Farming Systems’ in terms of resource management, production system and household economy, and emphasises on the linkages to farmand family income. Results further show distinctive characteristics in the length of pasturing, the size of cultivated land and the off-farm income. The authors indicate, how socio-economic parameters of these farming systems demand for different approaches for sustainable land management.

The University of Central Asia's (UCA's) Mountain Societies Research Institute (MSRI) is an interdisciplinary research institute dedicated to addressing the challenges and opportunities within Central Asian mountain communities and environments. MSRI's goal is to support and enhance the resilience and quality of life of mountain societies through the generation and application of sound research. MSRI has 5 objectives: to generate new knowledge on mountain societies through academic research; to enhance Central Asian capacity to conduct research relevant to mountain societies; to serve as a knowledge hub for scholars, development practitioners, and decision-makers; to inform policy and practice through research; and to contribute to the development of UCA academic programs relevant to mountain societies. MSRI and its partners work to transfer knowledge to policy and practice aimed at improving the quality of life for people of the mountain areas of Central Asia.

Abstract The University of Central Asia's (UCA's) Mountain Societies Research Institute (MSRI) is an interdisciplinary research institute dedicated to addressing the challenges and opportunities within Central Asian mountain communities and environments. MSRI's goal is to support and enhance the resilience and quality of life of mountain societies through the generation and application of sound research. MSRI has 5 objectives: to generate new knowledge on mountain societies through academic research; to enhance Central Asian capacity to conduct research relevant to mountain societies; to serve as a knowledge hub for scholars, development practitioners, and decision-makers; to inform policy and practice through research; and to contribute to the development of UCA academic programs relevant to mountain societies. MSRI and its partners work to transfer knowledge to policy and practice aimed at improving the quality of life for people of the mountain areas of Central Asia.

While there is growing recognition of the scope of challenges and opportunities that Central Asian mountain societies have before them, there is a lack of natural and social science analysis of current realities and of the impact of development practices. Rigorous research on Central Asia and analysis of existing and potential development practices are needed to both fill known gaps and explore blind spots in knowledge of Central Asian mountain societies. Such findings are essential for further developing options for sustainable livelihoods and sound ecosystems, together with the people of Central Asia’s mountains (Kerven et al 2012, in this issue; Kreutzmann 2012).

The University of Central Asia (UCA) is committed to addressing sustainable mountain development through the design and implementation of its academic programs and in its operations. In June 2011, UCA launched its first university-wide, interdisciplinary research center-the Mountain Societies Research Centre (MSRC).

Indigenous knowledge has become a topic of considerable interest within the research and development environment. Incorporating indigenous knowledge into state-led 'top-down' conservation and development programmes, however, is still a great challenge. This paper presents a case from Yunnan, Southwest China, in which indigenous knowledge has been integrated into the development of an agroforestry model with non-timber forest products for the Sloping Land Conservation Programme (SLCP) by using a participatory technology development (PTD) approach. This approach was adopted to increase the likelihood that technologies developed would be suitable for resource-poor households. It is expected that integrating indigenous and scientific knowledge, will lead to positive ecological and economic outcomes. Finally, the paper argues that the integration of indigenous knowledge in both forestry policy formulation and implementation is important in the context of sustainable forest management in mountain areas.

Abstract The present article provides an overview of the status of land use and land cover change science in Montane Mainland Southeast Asia in the context of a Mobile Workshop. Outcomes of the Mobile Workshop highlighted the rapid changes in land use and livelihoods, largely driven by the development of transport links, increasing market access, and trade liberalization. While many of these changes are likely to be beneficial, they must be carefully monitored, and relevant policies should be inclusive of all stakeholders. This is why it is important that land use science be cognizant of the need to make information accessible to policy-makers and land users.

In Southwest China, agricultural land and forestland are traditionally considered to be separate; but, rather than forestry plantations there is tremendous potential to plant trees on farms to improve agroecosystem mosaics. Agroforests can increase agricultural productivity and supplement farmers' incomes through the sale of fruits, nuts, fuelwood, and timber. Trees on farms can also alleviate fuelwood and timber shortfalls. The potential erosion and runoff control benefits provided by a mix of appropriately selected and placed trees can help achieve watershed and biodiversity conservation objectives; on farms these benefits are more significant than on plantations. The World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF) is developing agroforestry with farmers and foresters in Southwest China at several levels by: helping select trees and providing high-quality seeds and saplings; training in management and marketing; documenting experiences to inform policy; and supporting environmental educational and rehabilitation programs.

Worldwide, the potential of smallholder forestry to meet policymakers' economic and environmental objectives is gaining increased recognition. In Southwest China, a significant portion of forests are owned and managed by smallholder, village collectives. Decisions made now will determine whether the potential of collective forestry in Southwest China can be realized, or whether smallholder forests are ultimately consolidated into larger holdings. This analysis traces the history of collective forest management in four villages in northwest Yunnan, highlighting four issues fundamental to unlocking the potential of collective forestry: policy support, forestry approach, village institutions, and multi-scale governance. Policy reforms are necessary but not sufficient as a means to bring improvements in these four areas. Investments in human and social capital–linked to the process of building more formal institutions–are essential beside longer-term institutional change.

Small and medium forest enterprises (SMFEs) provide an opportunity to reducepoverty and sustain forests. But they face a number of critical bottlenecks to theirdevelopment (e.g. insecure forest access, lack of market information or bargainingpower). Working together in associations can overcome such bottlenecks wherefew other support structures exist. There are literally thousands of forest-linkedsmall and medium enterprise associations in developing countries. Many arise spon-taneously from strong collective interest. Some fail, but many succeed. Successfulassociations are the means to achieve three important development ‘ends’:† Reducing transaction costs † Adapting strategically to new opportunities † Lobbying for more supportive policies This paper draws out some lessons on how and why associations work. Itsummarises research from Brazil, China, Guyana, India, South Africa and Uganda. The research found that lasting associations generally have a strong degree ofautonomy. They usually have leaders with a track-record of social commitment.Most have gradually evolving sets of procedures that institutionalise the progressmade by charismatic founders. Their focus is usually restricted to a few long-termissues. Equity is highest where there is greatest investment in democracy. Equitableassociations tend to pay attention to transparency over costs and benefits. Mostalso have in place sanctions for free riders or those who break their rules, and clearprocedures for resolving conflicts. The single major policy implication is that forest based associations can and dowork. They work in places where there is little else to improve the livelihoods ofthe poor. Decision-makers should support them as a result; the most useful supporttends to be responsive rather than imposed. It is usually orientated towards self-helpoptions such as strengthening umbrella associations and improving awareness ofexisting support services. It often has a strong focus on providing information onbureaucratic procedures, product design and markets, finance and technologicalinnovation.

Drawing on case studies carried out in the upper watersheds of the Mekong and Salween Rivers in northwest Yunnan Province, this paper examines two of China’s nascent national, large-scale forestry programs: the Sloping Land Conversion Program (SLCP) and the National Forest Protection Program (NFPP). It identifies their impacts on rural communities and local line agencies, as well as preliminary community and agency responses to the programs. The paper argues that as well-intentioned as the programs are, they fail to accomplish the envisaged goal of mitigating erosion and surface flow in upper watersheds and subsequently having a positive impact in flood plains and preventing floods. In addition, it also reveals some of the negative impacts on livelihoods of mountain communities, their environment and overall agro-biodiversity. Priority issues associated with SLCP and NFPP implementation arising from the case studies are also highlighted. The case studies suggest that more extensive program piloting and experimentation is required before forest conservation activities are scaled up.

Current landscape mosaic patterns of land cover in Northern Thailand can be seen as resulting from adaptation of traditional agricultural systems over time. During the 1950s, little influence from the lowlands had yet imposed itself on traditional systems in higher elevation zones. Subsequent outside influences, such as markets for new crops associated with both opium crop replacement programs and expansion of lowland agro-industry, led to extensive clearance of forest in mountainous areas. Increasing clearing size changed the land-use patterns from those formerly based on small clearings, substantially impacting forest regeneration and watersheds in general. Land-use constraints imposed by the Royal Thai Government (RTG) on highland areas, such as accompanying national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and a watershed classification system, combined with political tensions, fears for national security in border areas, and foreign pressure to stop opium production, further influenced agricultural development.In response, a series of crop substitution-oriented projects were implemented during the 1980s, linked with RTG efforts to improve health service, education, infrastructure, and market access in the highlands. Population growth and in-migration further increased land-use pressure, and by the late 1980s projects like CARE Thailand and the Sam Mun Highland Development Project (SMHDP) began developing integrated approaches including participatory land-use planning (PLP) to address the multitude of problems and develop strategies and solutions in partnership with highland communities. These efforts also significantly affected agricultural systems in transition. During the 1990s, concern with environmental issues grew rapidly. Initial concern focused on criticism of dam projects and state management of forest lands, leading to proposals for a community forestry law that would allow local participation in management of forest resources. But growing environmental awareness in lowland and urban populations was also associated with realization of the importance of upper watershed forests in the northern region for future livelihoods. The regular supply of clean water long taken for granted was now becoming an issue of concern. This set the stage for a growing debate and tension between upstream and downstream interests, which has intensified with recent flash-flood and landslide disasters. Meanwhile, governance reform efforts led to a new national constitution and strengthening of local governance institutions. Additional projects initiated by the Royal Family, the RTG and various NGOs to work closely with highland villagers have been responding to challenges presented by these developments. As a result, locally-negotiated land-use planning, combined with new tools ranging from methods for local monitoring of watershed services to GIS and remote sensing technology, are coming together in a promising approach for addressing both local and societal needs. ICRAF Chiang Mai, working together with the Royal Forest Department, Chiang Mai University, the Queen Sirikit Forest Development Project, Care-Thailand, and other ASB-Thailand partners, are conducting research on these issues and processes at their benchmark research site in the Mae Chaem district of Chiang Mai province in northern Thailand. This research targets development and pilot testing of a comprehensive spatial information system to support participatory management of natural resources in upper tributary areas where national conservation concerns seek to constrain local land-use practices. The system consists of four major components: (1) Negotiation and articulation of local land-use plans and agreements that incorporate local needs as well as concerns of downstream communities and national society. (2) Spatial information tools that provide: a basis for formal recognition of local land-use agreements, transparency and accountability in monitoring compliance, and additional information to enhance the capacity of local institutions to manage land use in a manner that can improve local livelihoods while sustaining environmental services. (3) Continuous monitoring and assessment of watershed services by local communities and watershed management networks. (4) Analytical modeling to provide assistance for both local managers and the general public in interpreting information related to natural resource management issues. Field-testing of the overall system includes additional detailed information on land-use history, local land-use patterns, and other factors that will assist in assessing the effectiveness of the system and its various components. Initial pilot implementation of these efforts began in 2001 in four sub-watersheds of Mae Chaem, selected to represent a range of current land-use conditions found in upper tributary watershed areas. This paper reports on progress at these four pilot sites, including evolution of land-use patterns and local response to the tools and approach and discusses plans for further expansion of pilot tests and potential for wider regional application and adaptation. Thomas, David, Horst Weyerhaeuser, Pornwilai Saipathong. 2003. Improved Tools for Managing Agroforestry Landscapes in Northern Thailand: Pilot Application of Spatial Analysis and Negotiation Support Systems. In Landscapes of Diversity: Indigenous Knowledge, Sustainable Livelihoods and Resource Governance in Montane Mainland Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the III Symposium on MMSEA 25–28 August 2002, Lijiang, P.R. China. Xu Jianchu and Stephen Mikesell, eds. pp. 381–400. Kunming: Yunnan Science and Technology Press. David Thomas, Horst Weyerhaeuser, and Pornwilai Saipathon 382

In southwest China, agricultural land and forest land are traditionally considered to be separate. Howev- er, in addition to large-scale government-orchestrated plantations schemes, there is tremendous poten- tial for planting trees on farms to improve agro-ecosystem mosaics. This can be done with single trees, with group planting, or through small-scale woodlots with one or more indigenous species. Agroforests can also increase agricultural productivity, and supplement farmer incomes through the sale of fruit, nuts, fuelwood, and timber. Trees on farms can alleviate fuelwood and timber shortfalls. The potential erosion and runoff control benefits provided by a mix of appropriately selected and placed trees can contribute to watershed and biodiversity conservation objectives. These benefits are more significant on farms than in plantations. ICRAF is testing and developing suitable tree-planting and agro-forestry schemes with farmers and for- esters in southwest China on several levels: through assistance in selecting species and improving nursery technology to raise high-quality seeds and saplings; by research on domestication and species phenology; with training in management and marketing; by documenting experiences to inform policy; and through supporting environmental education and rehabilitation programmes. The paper introduces ongoing re - search on the 'framework species' approach, which is to enhance species diversity in buffer zones around the Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve. In addition, high value species are then adapted to community forests, where they improve local livelihoods and generate income in the future. The research builds on ongoing technical research carried out by the Baoshan forestry department and nature reserve. The paper also compares the framework species approach with ongoing tree species research for im - proved plantation and community forestry at the Baoshan forestry department. Line agencies have adapted these 'new' tree species to ecological conditions and market requirements, and the transfer of successful species to individual farms and community forests is in progress. Presently more than 50 different species are under trial at different field sites and within different planting schemes. Improving existing low quality monoculture plantations by interplanting a larger variety of broadleaf and adapted coniferous species, plus improving diverse plantations with more species, should not only benefit quality and henceforth generate higher income, but will also increase overall biodiversity and lower the risks associated with monoculture plantations.