While NTFPs (Non-timber forest products) sustain livelihoods for billions worldwide, their role in bioeconomy transitions remains understudied, particularly regarding dynamic market mechanisms and equitable outcomes. This study addresses this gap by analyzing walnut production in southwest China through a dynamic value chain perspective, using an “Actor-Profit-Mechanisms” framework to trace walnut flows in 2015 and 2022. The research provides a fine-grained analysis of an upstream section of the walnut value chain to highlight how market fluctuations and institutional structures reshape access and redistribute benefits across actors. The findings reveal three hidden inequalities: 1) persistent profit outflow from farmers due to weak market positioning; 2) cascading costs and risks disproportionately burdening smallholders; and 3) social relationship distortions tied to price fluctuations, where power dynamics shift between actors. These inequalities become more pronounced and intensify during periods of sharp price decline, as they are rooted in farmers' dispersed resources, hierarchical value-chain structures, and reliance on informal social capital. The study challenges assumptions of NTFPs as a panacea for poverty alleviation in the transition to bioeconomy, highlighting how a dynamic perspective can deepen the understanding of the systemic vulnerabilities. To enhance equity, policy interventions must prioritize local value chain upgrades, such as fostering processing enterprises, diversifying products, and establishing risk-mitigation mechanisms.

This article offers a geographical inquiry of the evolving political, technical, and economic intricacies of extending area-based conservation in China. Drawing on assemblage thinking, the article explores the process and practice of national park building in China to demonstrate that national parks are assemblages that bring together an array of actors (e.g., Indigenous communities, tourism enterprises, officials, nongovernmental organizations, scientists, and nonhuman entities) and objectives (e.g., conservation, sustainability, effectiveness, equity, compensation, profit, livelihoods, control, property). Focusing on the first pilot national park built in China, Pudacuo National Park in Yunnan Province, the research findings suggest that the specific practice of building assemblages via specific elements of political, technical, and economic processes in particular socioenvironmental regions creates local arenas and power struggles. Beyond the existing inquiry into the extension of area-based conservation from political geography and ecology (e.g., green grabbing and territorialization), this analysis promotes the study of national parks to better understand the role of assemblage practices within the politics of conservation, particularly when considering the interconnectedness of diverse actors and objectives.

Protected Areas (PAs) provide crucial ecosystem services (ESs) — including provisioning, regulating, and cultural services — to meet human needs at global and local levels, involving multi-stakeholder governance. Developing governance structures to ensure effective and equitable PA management presents challenges. Beyond the dichotomy of command-and-control and market approaches, innovative institutional arrangements are needed to blend different services (e.g., provisioning, regulating, cultural), objectives (e.g., conservation, development, sustainability), and instruments (e.g., command, markets, rewards). However, how to effectively blend these remains poorly understood. Based on ethnographic methods, including interviews, participatory observation, and focus group discussions, this research applied an empirically grounded approach to examine a PA in Southwest China. It illustrates the local process that established a hybrid governance arrangement, combining joint management, market-based payments, and collective action for ESs, to advance livelihood development, cultural preservation, and environmental conservation. Adopting the perspective of “credibility thesis”, the paper reveals that institutional credibility has evolved to support this hybrid governance model in meeting diverse needs. It argues that institutional credibility is ensured when stakeholders share notions of justice in the process of institution building. The policy implications highlight the need to invest in institutional capacity building to enhance the credibility of ES governance structures.

Rural China is undergoing dramatic transformation along with modernization and globalization, driven by increasing capitalist engagement to increase commercial crop production. This phenomenon has been termed “crop booms” and was widely observed in tropical and subtropical frontiers of the Global South. International concerns about crop booms driven capitalist agrarian changes have been widely documented due to its unexpected environmental and socioeconomic outcomes, such as exacerbating large-scale land acquisition, socioeconomic inequality, and environmental degradation. However, knowledge gaps can be found from existing literature, mainly ignorance of voices needs of smallholder farmers and the role of the state behind crop booms. By combining qualitative and quantitative methods, this paper offers insights to crop booms and agrarian change through case studies of coffee plantations in Southwest China. Different from large-scale and capital-intensified crop booms in other regions, which often result in negative environmental and social consequences, this paper reveals relatively positive aspects of crop booms in which fewer land transfers occurred and enhanced benefit-sharing helped improve equality. Findings suggest that security of agricultural land tenure system, increasing both international and domestic market competition, and involvement in value-added processing activities all enable smallholder farmers to engage in coffee plantations with support from government agencies and international companies. In connection with crop booms and agrarian change, policy implications drawn from this research call for deeper understanding of local dynamics in agrarian change and investment from governments to improve land tenure security and market infrastructure across the Global South.

Ganoderma , a prized medicinal mushroom renowned for its therapeutic properties, has a rich history of traditional use. As demand for this valuable fungus continues to rise, cultivation emerges as a sustainable solution to meet market needs. This review explores the intricate methodologies and challenges associated with cultivating Ganoderma . Successful cultivation hinges upon meticulous substrate selection, efficient spawn production, and precise management of cultivation parameters. By optimising these factors, cultivators can achieve high yields with consistent quality. However, the cultivation of Ganoderma is challenging. Contamination control poses a significant challenge, necessitating rigorous protocols to maintain purity and prevent unwanted microbial growth. Genetic variability within strains of Ganoderma presents complexities that require careful management to ensure uniformity and desired traits in cultivated populations. To overcome these challenges and further enhance cultivation efficiency, the adoption of biotechnological approaches holds considerable promise. Harnessing advancements in biotechnology can facilitate targeted improvements in Ganoderma cultivation, from optimising growth conditions to enhancing strain resilience and productivity. This review provides an in-depth exploration of Ganoderma cultivation techniques, highlighting key considerations and recent advancements. By addressing challenges and leveraging innovative strategies, Ganoderma cultivation is poised to meet the growing demand for this esteemed medicinal mushroom.

Motivation Forest tenure security plays a critical role in improving the livelihoods of those who live in and around forests and simultaneously contribute to forest conservation. Governments around the world have tried to strengthen tenure through titling programmes. Little is known about how forest titling contributes in practice to tenure security and how it affects local investment in forest management.Purpose This research aims to understand the legal, practical, and perceptual dimensions of forest tenure (in)security after the titling programme; and to examine causal paths from tenure (in)security to local investment in forest management.Approach and methods Taking Southwest China as an example, the article uses mixed methods to integrate qualitative and quantitative perspectives. Quantitative data were collected using a standardized questionnaire from 410 selected households. Qualitative data were gathered through in-depth interviews with 45 key informants, including forest officials, village heads, elders, women, and local forest rangers. Nine focus group interviews were set up to learn about local perspectives on collective forest tenure reform and perceived tenure (in)security.Findings Although legal tenure security has been improved by forest titling, both practical and perceived tenure insecurity continue to exist.Policy implications Central government needs to pay more attention to local variation to understand practical and perceived tenure security. Decentralization to empower local decision-making can help. Central government should also consider removal of the timber quotas to improve tenure security and stimulate local forest management. Additionally, the government and the international community should investigate the multidimensionality of forest tenure security, considering both local biophysical and socioeconomic conditions.

Crop boom-and-bust cycles driven by agricultural commercialization trigger dramatic agrarian change in mountain areas. There is extensive literature considering the impact of short-term crop cycles on local communities, revealing the vulnerability of farmers' livelihoods to market fluctuations and policy changes. However, little attention has been paid to the role of local agency in coping with and mitigating the impacts of these boom-and-bust cycles from a longitudinal perspective. Through an in-depth case study in Southwest China, we examined the dynamics of local agency in response to oscillating booms and busts of walnut crops over the past 30 years. The research reveals the ways in which local agency-namely, local knowledge, culture, and institutions-has interacted with policy changes and market fluctuations to sustain local livelihoods and foster ecosystem conservation. Our findings suggest that, while crop booms may create market uncertainty for local communities, they also provide opportunities for structural changes in agricultural practices, thereby introducing a potential pathway for local sustainable development amid agrarian change and proactive local agency. The policy implications drawn from this research call for strengthening of local agency for the sustainable development of mountain areas in countries with strong government intervention. This can be achieved by promoting local capacity building and expanding recognition of local knowledge, culture, and institutions. (c) 2025 Zhou and He. This open access article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/). Please credit the authors and the full source.

ABSTRACTBased on a large‐scale survey of 1216 households, this research examined the differential vulnerability of diverse ethnic groups who have traditionally inhabited the climate‐sensitive area of Southwest China in the Eastern Himalayas. The livelihood vulnerabilities of five ethnic groups that reside across different ecological zones were evaluated and compared using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) and Livelihood Vulnerability Index–Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (LVI–IPCC). Binary and multiple logistic regression models were used to analyze the effects of geography, income, and household characteristics on respondents' perceptions of the four most perceived climate events. The combined results of overall LVI and LVI–IPCC scores indicate that the Tibetan ethnic group is the most vulnerable to climate change, followed by the Bai, Han, Naxi, and Lisu. Intertwined biophysical, socioeconomic, and cultural factors affect climate change vulnerability. The ethnic groups residing in high‐altitude, steep, and remote areas, as well as farmers with lower livelihood diversity and a smaller proportion of nonagricultural income, were indicated to be most severely affected by climate events. As a timely piece of evidence‐based and policy‐informed research for decision‐makers, the findings represent a clarion call for deepening understanding of cultural differences between ethnic minorities in order to properly mitigate the effects of climate change.

Ethnopharmacological relevance The people of the Pan-Himalayan region are among the most isolated and economically disadvantaged populations worldwide. The Sherpa people, located along the China and Nepal border, rely largely on the natural environment to access essential healthcare services. The region’s ongoing economic and social developments threaten indigenous medicinal practices and biodiversity. However, there has been limited comprehensive investigation and documentation of traditional medicine and its associated knowledge in this region. Aim of the study The aims are to document the traditional medicinal knowledge of the Sherpa community, assess the conservation status of medicinal plants, and explore the historical factors that have influenced their traditional medicine practices. Material and methods Semi-structured interviews with 78 Sherpa people were conducted in Chenthang Town, Xizang, China. Use reports (URs) was used to determine the most frequently mentioned medicinal plants or a specific ailment or disease category. The International Classification of Primary Care-2nd edition (ICPC-2) was used to transform the original records into an internationally unified classification. Results A total of 51 plant species, one fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis (Berk.) G.H.Sung, J.M.Sung, Hywel-Jones & Spatafora), two lichens (Flavopunctelia soredica (Nyl.) Hale and Parmotrema cetratum (Ach.) Hale), and four minerals were documented, resulting in 824 URs. Ranunculaceae had the most species (5 spp.). The most commonly used method for preparing medicinal substances was decoction (23 species, 40%). Oral application was the preferred route of administration for 81% (41 medicinal substances). Forty-four ailments across 14 ICPC-2 disease categories were documented. Respiratory (320 URs) and digestive (122 URs) categories are among the most common diseases. The top-five ailments were influenza (18 substances; URs = 227), injury blood/lymph/spleen other (11 substances; URs = 66), cough (10 substances; URs = 62), headache (7 substances; URs = 63), and abdominal pain/cramps general (6 substances; URs =37). The most frequently reported medicinal substances were Panax pseudoginseng Wall. (URs = 128) and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennell) D. Y. Hong (URs = 79). Two special therapies (hot spring therapy and dietary therapy) were described. In-depth ethnographic information on the livelihood and exchange history of Sherpa people were documented. A total of 25 species were sold, of which four species were listed as VU in the IUCN Red List (2023-1), six species were listed as VU, four species were NT, and one species was EN in the China Biodiversity Red List 2021. Conclusion This study provides the first comprehensive documentation of the 58 traditional medicine substances and two special therapies (hot spring therapy and dietary therapy) used by the Sherpa people in Chenthang. Sherpa’s medicinal knowledge has been shaped by historical interactions and contemporary trade practices. To better protect the biocultural diversity of the Himalayan region, priority should be given to the rapid assessment of medicinal plants, knowledge, and use status in this area.

In the last two decades, commercial crop production has boomed to meet global food and biofuel demands as well as produce industrial commodities, while also being promoted as an effective approach for poverty alleviation in the Global South. Despite possible new economic opportunities, scholars are concerned that crop booms could exacerbate vulnerability in farmer livelihoods. However, it is little known how local resilience can be built in the context of crop booms. Through mixed methods of combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches, this research conducted a multidimensional assessment of livelihood resilience by focusing on absorptive, adaptive and anticipatory capacities of local people in Southwest China. Unlike existing literature, this research found that farmers who adopted a hybrid livelihood strategy that was partially involved in crop booms under agriculture modernization while simultaneously maintaining some degree of traditional agricultural practices had a higher level of livelihood resilience. In contrast, those who were fully involved and put all of their capital into cash crop planting as well as those who did not participate in cash crop production and completely avoided crop booms both showed a relatively low level of livelihood resilience. The paper argues that crop booms might provide more possibilities for farmers to diversify their agricultural systems and livelihood strategies to strengthen livelihood resilience when they have better access to land and markets.

Understanding divergent perceptions of ethnic groups to climate change in mountainous regions home to multi-ethnic cultures and the factors influencing these perceptions is crucial for policymakers to predict the trending impacts of climate change and make long-term decisions. Based on the case of Southwest China, 1216 households were interviewed by questionnaire surveys to gain insight into the perceptions of local people on the dynamic evolution characteristics of climate events in the uplands of Yunnan, China, which is an area home to rich ethnic diversity, and also to determine the factors that influence these perceptions. Results indicated that climate events have now become important events for farmers’ livelihoods, ranking only after family diseases and livestock diseases. Drought, long-term drought, and erratic rainfall are the three kinds of climatic events with the most significant increase in frequency and severity in mountainous areas. Farmers’ perceptions on whether drought, long-term drought, and erratic rainfall occurred 10 years ago as well as changes in frequency and severity are significantly influenced by characteristics of respondents, ethnic culture, geographical environment of farmer residences, farmland characteristics, and sources of livelihood. Ultimately, taking ethnic differences into consideration for long-term planning will be an important part of the local response to climate change in the future.

China has provided strong policy support for Farmers’ Cooperatives (FCs) in a bid to achieve its agricultural ambitions; however, scholars are divided on their contribution. Based upon three in-depth case studies, we interrogate the simple dichotomies used to describe FCs in China – authentic/inauthentic and failed/successful – arguing that FCs can have beneficial implications for smallholder livelihoods regardless of their organisation, operation and viability. Our research finds that local leadership and smallholder-led initiatives are more important than the authenticity and success of local FCs. We therefore call for a more nuanced understanding of the value of FCs and propose that resources should be diverted to other smallholder-led avenues to sustain China's rural development.

Ecological anthropology is a science that uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study the relations between culture, society, and the environment. Environmental determinism, cultural ecology, and neofunctionalism reveal different views of gongsheng. Currently, the idea and paradigm that humans live in a state of gongsheng with nature and that human society and the environment influence each other to create complex systems is widely recognized by ecological anthropologists. Cognitive theory, technological practice, and organizational mechanisms link cultural diversity and biological diversity together. The Anthropocene, the "Capitalocene," and globalization have led to "de-gongsheng," which has, in turn, caused a series of complex ramifications. Reaffirming local knowledge and traditional practice, integrating environmental justice to coordinate human relations, and turning to multispecies ethnography are possible paths of "re-gongsheng."

Commercial use of wildlife is booming. However, knowledge of trade, price structure and benefit distribution mechanisms remain limited for many endemic, threatened and economically valuable species, impeding efforts to develop conservation intervention schemes in line with sustainable objectives. We illustrate the nature of commercialization of the caterpillar fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, collected in a high-altitude Tibetan region. Using the value-chain approach, we document how caterpillar fungus is collected in a remote mountainous region and traded across a wide range of middlemen until it finally reaches high-end markets in urban centres. Mapping the caterpillar fungus value chain helps identify the actors involved and the social institutions (i.e. the rules, norms and arrangements that shape people's behaviours) facilitating access to markets and influencing profit distribution and price structure. We present the complex dynamics of this commercialization process, providing a holistic value-chain analysis that encompasses actors, profits and institutions.

Chinese agriculture is in the midst of profound change, driven in part by the state’s goals to scale up and modernise the sector and to promote more sustainable practices by reducing chemical fertiliser and pesticide use. Much of the existing literature on agrochemical use reduces these complex and highly politicised processes to a set of variables and models in which farmers are defined by characteristics such as age, education, and land size. This results in a poor understanding of why farmers do what they do. By examining case studies in Hubei and Yunnan, in this article we aim to better understand Chinese farmers’ agrochemical practices, and to begin to situate these in a broader political ecology of agrochemicals in China. Drawing on research conducted in 2017–2019, we examine the socio-ecological relations of production and exchange in these two places and how farmers make decisions about, and access, fertilisers and pesticides. We find no single trajectory, but a complexity of practice shaped by local conditions and policies. External drivers are constraining chemical pesticide use and promoting commercial organic fertiliser products, but actual on-farm practices complicate some of these goals. To drive forward our understanding of agrochemicals in China, we argue that a political–ecological approach is needed that is attuned to farmers’ decision-making about their particular crops, the local political economy that shapes access to resources such as alternative pest management tools and sets particular agendas, and the networks of agrochemical production and sales that bring different products to farms.

Currently, social justice for the management of ecosystem services is promoted widely in international communities. Efforts have increased to develop indicators for justice assessment, but these are relatively static forms of results-oriented analysis without much understanding of the dynamics and pluralities of local justice in the management of ecosystem services. This research uses a novel perspective of everyday environmental justice (EEJ) to examine local practices of environmental justice in two protected areas in China where two different payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes have been implemented. It demonstrates EEJ as a useful, process-oriented analysis that provides a deeper understanding of peoples’ everyday lives and their environmental management practices within the varied contexts of local justice. Everyday practices of EEJ highlight the spatiotemporal dynamics and plurality of justice, thereby offering a broader and more explicit conception of the distributive, procedural and recognition dimensions of environmental justice in local contexts. The research calls on policymakers and researchers to consider the everyday practices of EEJ with a heightened understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics of multidimensional justice.

This research presents a case study of a high-profile carbon forest sequestration project in Southwest China, which claims to achieve 'triple-win' outcomes for livelihoods, biodiversity and climate change. However, over the last 15 years, each household that participated in the project has only received 10-20 USD (about 0.67-1.33 USD annually), despite the requirement for farmers to convert their agricultural land into tree plantations. We argue that contemporary capitalism engaged in climate change mitigation efforts has effectively recast the rural governance of land from a territorial arrangement to multiple actors exerting control over carbon credit certification, which creates a new form of climate injustice and social exclusion in agrarian change.