This study examined the physicochemical and techno-functional properties of protein extracts from the red seaweed ( Pyropia seriata). The extraction processes involved variations of some of the following steps: alkaline treatment, milling, freeze drying, neutralisation, heating, and concentration. The extracts had total amino acid contents ranging between 40 and 55 % of the powders with essential amino acids comprising 25-30 % of the powders. The extracts were particularly abundant in aspartic acid and limited in the essential sulphur amino acids. The molecular weight (MW) distribution of the proteins within the extracts ranged from <10 to 50 kDa. All the extracts were soluble, with a solubility of 65-100 % depending on the final pH of the solution. The extracts had significant foaming-producing and emulsifying potential. The foaming stability ranged between 75 and 91 % for solutions between pH 7 and 11 and less than 75 % for solutions with pH of 5 or 3. Alkaline treatment significantly improved foaming capacity (120-160 %). A similar effect was also observed for emulsifying activity (0.29-0.51) and emulsifying stability (15-40 %). Milling enhanced the emulsifying potential and decreased the mg of amino acids per g powder. Neutralisation with hydrochloric acid instead of citric acid and subsequent heating and concentration showed minimal effect on the properties of the extracts and decreased the mg amino acids per g powder. This research highlights the potential of Pyropia seriata as a source of soluble alternative protein for food applications.

Algae are promising sources of nutritious and sustainable protein, but little is known about their metabolic health impact and acceptability as meal ingredients. This acute, randomized, controlled, five-way crossover trial compared whole algal biomasses and their corresponding protein concentrates to soy protein concentrate in terms of palatability, appetite, satiety, and metabolic response. Nineteen healthy Chinese males (21-50 years, 18.5-25.0 kg/m2) consumed noodle meals supplemented with 10 g of nori biomass/protein concentrate (NB/ NC), Chlorella vulgaris biomass/protein concentrate (CB/CC) or soy protein concentrate control (CON) in randomized order. At regular intervals, blood samples were collected to measure biochemical markers, while gastrointestinal tolerance, palatability, and appetite were assessed using questionnaires and visual analog scales (VAS). Results indicated that algae-enriched meals were well-tolerated and comparable to soy in both visual appeal and smell, with NB and CC outperforming soy in aftertaste (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences between treatments in glucose, insulin, C-peptide, appetite/satiety, plasma ghrelin, and GLP-1. However, exploratory analysis of serum triglycerides revealed significant time x treatment effects (p < 0.004) and differences in incremental area under the curve (iAUC0-120, p = 0.0249). Our findings reveal that algal biomasses and protein concentrates are as comparable to soy protein concentrate in palatability, satiety, and metabolic outcomes, highlighting their potential as practical, sustainable, and nutritious ingredients.

The influence of bound anthocyanins on pectin-protein complexation was studied by comparing two types of pectin-protein mixtures: (i) the anthocyanin-rich blackcurrant pectin-whey protein (BCP-WP) mixture and (ii) the anthocyanin-free citrus pectin-WP (CP-WP) mixture. The mixtures were prepared at pH 4.5 with (Pectin:Protein Ratio—1:1, 1:5, 1:10) and without (Pectin:Protein Ratio—1:1) heat treatment at 85 °C. Increasing protein ratio upon heating led to the formation of complexes which eventually destabilized the BCP-WP and CP-WP mixtures. However, no direct relationship was observed between the presence of anthocyanins and the destabilization of mixtures. FTIR analyses demonstrated that there were slight perturbations to the bond strengths of BCP, CP and WP functional groups when they were mixed, with or without heating, confirming the occurrence of pectin-protein complexation. Additionally, the spectrum of BCP-WP sedimented fractions showed the emergence of a peak at 800-1200 cm−1, signifying the presence of anthocyanin-protein interactions. This peak, however, was not seen in the spectrum of anthocyanin-free CP-WP sedimented fractions, indicating that the bound anthocyanins of BCP provided WP with additional binding sites. Moreover, the heated BCP-WP mixture at 1:10 ratio had similar net charge as the BCP control (both ca. −20 mV), yet its CP-WP counterpart had a net charge (ca. −19 mV) that was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the CP control (ca. −33 mV). Considering the findings from FTIR analyses, it was likely that with heat treatment the BCP and WP had interacted mainly via non-electrostatic forces—through hydrophobic interactions and later reinforced by hydrogen bonds upon cooling.

The influence of bound anthocyanins on pectin-protein complexation was studied by comparing two types of pectin-protein mixtures: (i) the anthocyanin-rich blackcurrant pectin-whey protein (BCP-WP) mixture and (ii) the anthocyanin-free citrus pectin-WP (CP-WP) mixture. The mixtures were prepared at pH 4.5 with (Pectin: Protein Ratio-1:1, 1:5, 1:10) and without (Pectin:Protein Ratio-1:1) heat treatment at 85 degrees C. Increasing protein ratio upon heating led to the formation of complexes which eventually destabilized the BCP-WP and CPWP mixtures. However, no direct relationship was observed between the presence of anthocyanins and the destabilization of mixtures. FTIR analyses demonstrated that there were slight perturbations to the bond strengths of BCP, CP and WP functional groups when they were mixed, with or without heating, confirming the occurrence of pectin-protein complexation. Additionally, the spectrum of BCP-WP sedimented fractions showed the emergence of a peak at 800-1200 cm-1, signifying the presence of anthocyanin-protein interactions. This peak, however, was not seen in the spectrum of anthocyanin-free CP-WP sedimented fractions, indicating that the bound anthocyanins of BCP provided WP with additional binding sites. Moreover, the heated BCP-WP mixture at 1:10 ratio had similar net charge as the BCP control (both ca. -20 mV), yet its CP-WP counterpart had a net charge (ca. -19 mV) that was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than the CP control (ca. -33 mV). Considering the findings from FTIR analyses, it was likely that with heat treatment the BCP and WP had interacted mainly via non-electrostatic forces-through hydrophobic interactions and later reinforced by hydrogen bonds upon cooling.

A complexation study between blackcurrant pectin (BCP) and whey protein (WP) was carried out to investigate the impact of bound anthocyanins on pectin–protein interactions. The effects of pH (3.5 and 4.5), heating (85 °C, 15 min), and heating sequence (mixed-heated or heated-mixed) were studied. The pH influenced the color, turbidity, particle size, and zeta-potential of the mixtures, but its impact was mainly significant when heating was introduced. Heating increased the amount of BCP in the complexes—especially at pH 3.5, where 88% w/w of the initial pectin was found in the sedimented (insoluble) fraction. Based on phase-separation measurements, the mixed-heated system at pH 4.5 displayed greater stability than at pH 3.5. Heating sequence was essential in preventing destabilization of the systems; mixing of components before heating produced a more stable system with small complexes (<300 nm) and relatively low polydispersity. However, heating WP before mixing with BCP prompted protein aggregation—producing large complexes (>400 nm) and worsening the destabilization. Peak shifts and emergence (800–1200 cm−1) in infrared spectra confirmed that BCP and WP functional groups were altered after mixing and heating via electrostatic, hydrophobic, and hydrogen bonding interactions. This study demonstrated that appropriate processing conditions can positively impact anthocyanin-bound pectin–protein interactions.

The right storage conditions for food powders containing amorphous carbohydrates are crucial to avoid structural changes. By combining the sorption isotherm and the glass transition temperature (Tg) data for these food powders enables the determination of appropriate moisture and temperature conditions for their storage. In this study, the modified Flory-Huggins free volume theory was utilized to predict the stability diagrams purely from the composition of the powders. The validation of the approach using the literature data of blends of grapefruit, mango and acai powders with various blends of maltodextrin (MD) and gum Arabic. The blends of fructose, glucose individual and in combination with citric acids as well as blackcurrant juice concentrate with MD DE 9–13 were also investigated. The alignment of experimental and predicted data of fruit powders demonstrates that it was possible to predict the relation of the Tg well as a function of the water activity for carbohydrate mixtures.

Sugar- and acid-rich food products are difficult to dehydrate and often require the addition of a drying aid in the form of one or a blend of polysaccharides to successfully dry them. The objective of this work was to study the effect of the addition of blends of multiple soluble polysaccharides, such as highly soluble inulin, digestion-resistant maltodextrin (MD) and MD dextrose equivalent (DE) 9–13 on the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the mixture with the monosaccharide glucose at zero water activity. It was demonstrated that the addition of several drying aids follows the same trend as the inclusion of only one polysaccharide. Furthermore, the impact of the addition of the salts, trisodium citrate, disodium carbonate and sodium phosphate on the Tg of glucose was tested. The results provide insights to the different mechanisms of salts and polysaccharides in raising the Tg of low molecular weight components.

Sugar-rich food products are difficult to dehydrate and successful drying often requires the addition of a polysaccharide drying aid to increase the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the final mixture. The objective of this work was to develop a mathematical model to predict Tg of low molecular weight sugar and food acid components in combination with different drying aids. The Couchman-Karasz model was extended by the additional term θ, which represents the excess enthalpy of mixing expressed by the Redlich-Kister equation. The term θ can be adjusted for various polysaccharides to estimate Tg of newly formulated mixtures. Comparison of the predictions against literature and experimental data for sucrose with dextrans and maltodextrin (MD) DE 5, 6, 15 and 20, and mango juice with MD DE 17-21, and glucose, citric acid and fructose with MD DE 9-13 all demonstrated good predictive power and gave confidence to the utilization of the model.

This study was conducted because of the limited knowledge of polyphenols that are bound to pectin in blackcurrant juice. A dialyzed ethanol-precipitated fraction isolated from blackcurrant juice was found to contain carbohydrate (78% w/w), uronic acid (21% w/w), protein (4.8% w/w), anthocyanin (3.9% w/w), and calcium (2.2% w/w). The pectin-rich fraction had a pKa value of 1.67, a ??-potential of ???23.1 mV (pH 4.8), and a degree of esterification of 65.2%. Constituent sugar analysis showed mostly galacturonic acid, rhamnose, arabinose, and galactose, and NMR spectroscopic analysis showed that it was rich in rhamnogalacturonans with arabinogalactan side chains. This fraction was highly pigmented, with cyanidin 3-O-rutinoside being the major anthocyanin. Liquid chromatography showed anthocyanins retained in the fraction that failed to be extracted by methanol, suggesting the presence of bound anthocyanins. Multiangle laser light scattering data showed the presence of two fractions, ???283 kDa present at 14.6% w/w and ???97 kDa at 85.5% w/w. The latter also produced a higher UV280 nm signal, signifying that proteins and/or polyphenols were present mainly in the second fraction. The existence of bound anthocyanins and proteins in pectin indicates the complexity of this biopolymer, which can help to elucidate the instability issues that can arise when blackcurrant juice is mixed with other ingredients in food systems.

Atomization performances of juice-fibre suspensions, which are non-Newtonian extensional liquids, inside a two-fluid nozzle were predicted theoretically by using two different relationships, in which one of the relationships does not incorporate the extensional rheological properties in its prediction. A good correlation was obtained between the theoretical and experimental droplet sizes of fibre suspensions when the theoretical droplet sizes were predicted by considering the extensional rheological property which is the relaxation time of the fibre suspensions. This finding confirms that the atomization of fibre suspensions, which the fibre suspensions exhibit significant extensional properties, are dominantly controlled by extensional resistance with minor effects of shear resistance and surface tension. It also implies that the relatively bigger droplet sizes of the fibre suspensions, when compared to Newtonian droplets, were due to the extensional resistance of the suspensions, with little effect by shear viscosity and surface tension. The atomization performance was observed at elevated temperatures ranging between 20 and 70 degrees C. By using a two-fluid nozzle at a low atomizing air velocity of 150 m/s, the D (v,90) significantly reduced from >1000 mu m to 650 mu m when the temperature was increased from 20 to 70 degrees C. Meanwhile, at a high atomizing air velocity of 240 m/s, the D(v,90) can be said to remain constant between 350 and 400 mu m.

Pomace fibre is the left-over plant from juice processing which has several health-promoting properties. Fibre has potentially been recognized as a drying aid in the spray drying of fruit juice. In the present work, shear and extensional properties of different fibre suspensions were assessed and compared. Unlike fruit juice, which displays Newtonian behaviour, fibre suspensions exhibit shear thinning behaviour with dependence on the fibre fraction and aspect ratio and significant extensional properties as measured with a capillary break-up rheometer. The extensional properties of the fibre suspensions make it more difficult to atomize them. This study shows the importance of assessing both shear and extensional properties of fibre suspensions before incorporating them in spray drying.

Atomization of non-Newtonian viscoelastic liquids was carried out using a two-fluid nozzle. Juice-fibre suspension is a shear thinning liquid that exhibits significant extensional resistance when forced through an extensional flow-field. Two types of fibres were used with aspect ratios of 2-3 and 8-10. The atomization behaviour of the suspensions discharging in the air was photographed using a backlit setup to visualise the atomization pattern of viscoelastic fibre suspensions. The effect of the extensional resistance is to delay the droplet formation by forming filamentary structures that link successive droplets together. As a consequence, droplets of viscoelastic fibre suspensions are usually bigger than Newtonian droplets. Using a two-fluid nozzle, at an atomizing air velocity of 150 m/s, the average droplet size of fibre suspension with aspect ratio 2-3 was 450 mu m while the average droplet size of fibre suspension with aspect ratio 8-10 was 530 mu m. Increasing the atomizing air velocity in the two-fluid nozzle yielded better atomization by forming smaller droplets as proved by the droplet size analysis. At the highest tested atomizing air velocity of 240 m/s, both average droplet sizes were reduced to approximately 200-250 mu m.

A country-specific food composition databases is useful for assessing nutrient intake reliably in national nutrition surveys, research studies and clinical practice. The New Zealand Food Composition Database (NZFCDB) programme seeks to maintain relevant and up-to-date food records that reflect the composition of foods commonly consumed in New Zealand following Food Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations/International Network of Food Data Systems (FAO/INFOODS) guidelines. Food composition data (FCD) of up to 87 core components for approximately 600 foods have been added to NZFCDB since 2010. These foods include those identified as providing key nutrients in a 2008/09 New Zealand Adult Nutrition Survey. Nutrient data obtained by analysis of composite samples or are calculated from analytical data. Currently >2500 foods in 22 food groups are freely available in various NZFCDB output products on the website: www.foodcomposition.co.nz. NZFCDB is the main source of FCD for estimating nutrient intake in New Zealand nutrition surveys.

The composition of kiwifruit is important for understanding the nutritional value of kiwifruit for consumption. Our aim was to develop a reference nutritional composition profile for a gold-fleshed kiwifruit Zespri® SunGold Kiwifruit and a green-fleshed kiwifruit Zespri® Sweet Green Kiwifruit. Ten representative single-replicate (10 growers) samples, each containing 40 fruit, were prepared for both kiwifruit varieties. Samples were analysed for macronutrients, minerals, and vitamins. The analytical results reveal that the nutrient composition of SunGold and Sweet Green are largely similar to other commercially available kiwifruits. However, a key difference is the elevated levels of vitamin C in SunGold (161mg/100g edible flesh) and Sweet Green, (150mg/100g), compared to 85mg/100g commonly found for the green 'Hayward' variety. Levels of dietary fibre, potassium, vitamin E, and folate are similar to other commercial kiwifruit Zespri® Gold Kiwifruit ('Hort16A') and Green Kiwifruit ('Hayward'), confirming kiwifruit as a good source of these nutrients.

Dietary fibres, particularly viscous fibres appear to be more effective for appetite control (reduce subjective appetite, energy intake and/or body weight). Three types of viscous fibres, pectin, alginate and cereal beta-glucan, were identified as potential satiety-enhancing ingredients. The aim of this review was to collect evidence from human intervention studies evaluating pectins, alginates and beta-glucans in beverages, liquid preloads and liquid test meals for their satiety effects. Our focused, narrative review of several satiety studies shows an overall consistent result on the effectiveness of pectin, alginate and beta-glucan for appetite control. Beverages or liquid test meals are probably the better delivery mode for these fibres, as their effect on satiety is affected by their physico-chemical properties. Most, if not all, of these reviewed studies gave little or no consideration to the potential effects of common food processing (e.g. pasteurisation, ultra-high temperature process) on the physico-chemical properties of these fibre-containing beverages. This is one of the research gaps we have identified warranting further work, which is likely to be of significance from the industry and consumer perspective.

This study examined the effect of a Boysenberry beverage (750 mg polyphenols), an apple fiber beverage (7.5 g dietary fiber), and a Boysenberry plus apple fiber beverage (750 mg polyphenols plus 7.5 g dietary fiber) on gut health. Twenty-five individuals completed the study. The study was a placebo-controlled crossover study, where every individual consumed 1 of the 4 treatments in turn. Each treatment phase was 4-week long and was followed by a 2-week washout period. The trial beverages were 350 g taken in 2 doses every day (ie, 175 mL taken twice daily). The hypothesis for the study was that the combination of polyphenols and fiber would have a greater benefit on gut health than the placebo product or the fiber or polyphenols on their own. There were no differences in fecal levels of total bacteria, Bacteroides-Prevotella-Porphyromonas group, Bifidobacteriumspecies, Clostridium perfringens, or Lactobacillus species among any of the treatment groups. Fecal short chain fatty acid concentrations did not vary among treatment groups, although prostaglandin E2 concentrations were higher after consumption of the Boysenberry juice beverage. No significant differences were found in quantitative measures of gut health between the Boysenberry juice beverage, the apple fiber beverage, the Boysenberry juice plus apple fiber beverage, and the placebo beverage.

This chapter contains sections titled: Introduction Whey Sources and Composition Processing Techniques Ion Exchange (Protein Isolation and Fractionation) Whey Products and Ingredients Functional Properties of Whey Protein Concentrates Biological Properties Lactose Processing, Products, and Derivatives Acknowledgements References

Milk is the source of a wide range of proteins that deliver nutrition to the most promising new food products today. Isolated milk proteins are natural, trusted food ingredients with excellent functionality. Separation technologies provide the basis for adding value to milk through the production of proteins that provide the food industry with ingredients to meet specific needs, not possible with milk itself or with other ingredients. The major milk proteins, casein and whey protein, can be isolated by manipulating their compositional and physical properties and then by using various separation technologies to recover the proteins. Additionally, they can be processed in various ways to create a wide range of ingredients with diverse functional characteristics. These ingredients include milk protein concentrate, milk protein isolate, casein, caseinate, whey protein concentrate, whey protein isolate, hydrolysates, and various milk fractions. Within each of these ingredient categories, there is further differentiation according to the functional and nutritional requirements of the finished food. Adding value to milk by expanding from consumer products to ingredients often requires different technologies, marketing structure and distribution channels. The worldwide market for both consumer products and ingredients from milk continues to grow. Technology often precedes market demand. Methods for the commercial production of individual milk components now exist, and in the future as clinical evidence develops, the opportunity for adding value to dairy products as functional foods with health benefits may be achieved. The research and development of today will be the basis of those value-added milk products for tomorrow.