Herein, a comparative evaluation based on both experimental and theoretical approaches is reported for the removal of Staphylococcus aureus, a Gram-positive bacteria. Magnetic oxide-coated tea waste (MCTW) was synthesized and then characterized by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and then employed as a green adsorbent. The main objective of current work was to optimize adsorption parameters required for maximum adsorption experimentally and to verify them using probability distribution functions (PDF) and the disappearance model (DM) for the bacterial adsorption data. The batch method was used for adsorption experiments, and the concentration of bacteria was calculated using the colony-forming unit (CFU) method. The pseudo-second order and Langmuir isotherm models were found best fitted for kinetic and isotherm equilibrium studies. The maximum adsorption capacity of MCTW was observed 3×106 CFU.g-1 with a removal efficiency 85.5% under optimized conditions (contact time=160 minutes, pH=5, temperature=313 K, and adsorbent dosage=50 mg). The thermodynamic parameters including; ΔH°, ΔS°, and ΔG° indicated the endothermic nature of bacterial adsorption, accompanied by entropically driven changes and the spontaneous nature of bacterial adsorption onto MCTW adsorbent. Precise modeling improves the performance of adsorption systems through improved design and management in processes such as catalysis and water purification. The results of this study suggest that MCTW was efficiently applied to the removal of Gram-positive bacteria as an economical biosorbent from an aqueous environment.

Moxifloxacin (MOXI) is an effective broad-spectrum antibiotic used for respiratory tract infections. It accumulates in animal products and the environment because of overuse and inefficient removal by conventional wastewater treatment. Thus, increasing in antibiotic resistance which necessitates prompt detection to enable further preventative actions or treatments. For the solution of the above problem, herein, a new electrochemical sensor based on ruthenium dioxide (RuO2) nanoparticles (Nps) has been reported for the detection of MOXI. RuO2 Nps were made by a hydrothermal method and then evaluated by various analytical techniques such as, XRD, FTIR and SEM. The RuO2 NPs have a small particle size, good surface morphology, and crystalline properties that give them enhanced surface area and large number of active sites enabling fast and effective electron transportation in redox reactions. The investigation of sensing performance for the detection of MOXI was done with the help of cyclic voltammetry (CV), differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The optimum conditions considered were pH = 7, RuO2 Nps concentration = 20 mM, time = 10 min and scan rate = 60 mV/s. A good linear response range of peak current vs concentration of MOXI was obtained (1–40 μM) with a limit of detection (LOD) 0.93 μM and limit of quantification (LOQ) 2.82 μM. Furthermore, the sensor was found quite selective towards common interferants and reflected good reproducibility (99%) and repeatability (91%). The detection of MOXI with a recovery rate of (91–98%) in wastewater and blood serum make it suitable for real time application and is therefore ideal in therapeutic drug monitoring as well as environmental analysis.

The aim of this work was to develop a colorimetric sensor that is specific to arsenic (As3+) and cadmium (Cd2+) ions and is stable, sensitive, selective, and affordable. For the quantitative detection of As3+ and Cd2+, a dual platform (filter paper-based and UV-Vis approach) was utilized. Herein, we synthesized chromium oxide nanoparticles (Cr2O3 NPs) using co-precipitation method and characterization was done using FT-IR, FESEM/ SEM, AFM, UV-Vis, and XRD which confirmed the successful synthesis of NPs. The crystalline structure, abundance of binding sites, and large surface area of the NPs contributed to its increased suitability for sensor development. These nanoparticles act as nanozymes in colorimetric sensing of As3+ and Cd2+ ions. Numerous parameters were optimized, such as the incubation period (12 min), concentration of TMB (3 and 4 mg/mL), concentration of H2O2 (100 mM), and the concentration of NPs (3 mg/mL). This sensing probe showed exceptional sensitivity over a relatively wide linear range, with a lower detection limit (LOD) of 26 nM and 0.41 mu M in UV-Vis spectrophotometry and filter-paper, respectively for As3+ and in case of Cd2+ detection limit is 81 nM and 1 mu M in UV-Vis spectrophotometry and filter-paper, respectively. Testing against multiple interfering species was used to determine selectivity and real sampling on herbal products (Dmaghi, Maqbood, Safoof-e-tabkir) to check practical applicability in which recovery rates validate the technology for use in practical settings. The developed colorimetric sensor demonstrated remarkable selectivity and sensitivity in identifying heavy metals, such as As and Cd, even at low concentrations, according to the results.

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used in both biological and industrial processes, but at high concentrations, it can be toxic and detrimental to living organisms. So, its precise and accurate detection is important; however, conventional enzymatic detection technology has some shortcomings. Therefore, this review focuses on transition metal-based nanozymes that function as peroxidase mimics for the sensitive detection of H2O2 in colorimetric methods. The review evaluates the current approaches applied for increasing the selectivity using bimetallic alloys, hybrid nanostructures, and surface modifications, in conjunction with contact reduction mechanisms at the matrix-surface interface. It highlights the use of nanoparticles prepared from iron, copper, nickel, silver, gold, and cobalt due to their stability, cost-effectiveness, and flexibility. Even the most recent developments in research cannot address the current problems, which include oxidation susceptibility, material degradation, and the limited operational depth of real-world materials. Hence, this review provides insights into a portable microfluidics platform, smartphone-based analytical tools and AI-optimized nanozyme synthesis techniques to bridge the gap between laboratory proof-of-concept studies and industrial applications. This review also demonstrates sustainable sensing using eco-friendly nanoparticles developed from biomass resources by researchers. The adoption of biocompatibility standards alongside green manufacturing and multi-analyte detection systems will streamline the sensor operation in healthcare settings, environmental surveillance, and food safety analysis. The sensor development roadmap of H2O2 outlines the pathway by which material development takes an interdisciplinary approach and progresses toward large-scale production and commercialization of the sensor in the market.

High phosphate discharge into water bodies causes eutrophication, leading to significant ecological harm. In the current study, we use L-His immobilized montmorillonite (His-MMt) adsorbents for the selective capturing of phosphate ions from aqueous solutions. The synthesized adsorbents were characterized through XRD, SEM, FTIR, and BET techniques. The intercalation of His-MMt interlayer exhibited an increase in surface area and active sites for phosphate adsorption, as demonstrated by the characterization study. The best adsorption conditions were found to at contact time = 30 min, pH = 4, phosphate concentration = 10 mg/L, adsorbent dosage = 20 mg, and temperature = 320 K. Kinetic studies revealed that the adsorption followed a pseudo-second-order model (R-2 >= 0.98). Equilibrium data followed the Freundlich isotherm model (R-2 >= 0.98), indicating multilayer adsorption. Thermodynamic analysis brings in Delta H degrees = 42.92 kJ/mol, Delta S degrees = 222.56 J/molK, and negative Delta G degrees values, endorsing an endothermic and spontaneous process with high entropy at the solid/solution interface. The maximum adsorption capacity was 81.96 mg/g, and the adsorbent maintained 79 % efficiency even after five regeneration cycles. About 85.1 % phosphate removal in sludge water was achieved as compared to 95 % in controlled experiments, demonstrating significant potential for practical use. Moreover, the phosphate-adsorbed His-MMt shown potential for commercial utilization as a fertilizer by eliminating secondary environmental effects.

Amid advances in nanomaterial-based biosensors, there remains a critical need for rapid, user-friendly, and fielddeployable systems that bridge the gap between laboratory-grade precision and real-time detection of Ochratoxin A (OTA). Herin, we present an enzyme-free, highly stable, and low-cost detection system for colorimetric detection of Ochratoxin A in agri-foods. The biosensor was fabricated on filter-paper discs immobilizing Cr2O3TiO2 nanocomposite functionalized with OTA-specific aptamer, enabling OTA detection through binding induced conformational changes. The non-covalent adsorption of aptamer on the Cr2O3-TiO2 surface shields the color intensity of 3, 3 ', 5, 5 '-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) by partially shielding active sites of the nanozyme. However, when OTA is present in the system, an aptamer-target complex is formed ultimately weakens the aptamernanocomposite interaction. Consequently, the catalytic activity of nanocomposite is restored in the presence of H2O2 and TMB, causing a visible increase in color intensity. Our proposed method is simple and exhibit high sensitivity and specificity towards OTA under optimal conditions in a linear range from 1 to 300 nM, and limit of detection (LOD) of 0.2 nM. The practicability of the method was demonstrated by the seamless measurement of OTA in real wheat, maize, and rice samples with recovery rates up to 91-96.5%, 87-96% and 91-96.33%, respectively. Subsequently, the integration of smartphone for signal readout enables user-friendly, on-site quantitative detection of OTA. The integration of superior catalytic activity of Cr2O3-TiO2 nanozyme with a disposable paper-based platform presents a synergistic approach for accessible, robust, and inexpensive decentralized OTA screening in food and agricultural products in resource-limited settings.

Amid advances in nanomaterial-based biosensors, there remains a critical need for rapid, user-friendly, and field-deployable systems that bridge the gap between laboratory-grade precision and real-time detection of Ochratoxin A (OTA). Herin, we present an enzyme-free, highly stable, and low-cost detection system for colorimetric detection of Ochratoxin A in agri-foods. The biosensor was fabricated on filter-paper discs immobilizing Cr2O3-TiO2 nanocomposite functionalized with OTA-specific aptamer, enabling OTA detection through binding induced conformational changes. The non-covalent adsorption of aptamer on the Cr2O3-TiO2 surface shields the color intensity of 3, 3՛, 5, 5՛-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) by partially shielding active sites of the nanozyme. However, when OTA is present in the system, an aptamer-target complex is formed ultimately weakens the aptamer-nanocomposite interaction. Consequently, the catalytic activity of nanocomposite is restored in the presence of H₂O₂ and TMB, causing a visible increase in color intensity. Our proposed method is simple and exhibit high sensitivity and specificity towards OTA under optimal conditions in a linear range from 1 to 300 nM, and limit of detection (LOD) of 0.2 nM. The practicability of the method was demonstrated by the seamless measurement of OTA in real wheat, maize, and rice samples with recovery rates up to 91–96.5%, 87–96% and 91–96.33%, respectively. Subsequently, the integration of smartphone for signal readout enables user-friendly, on-site quantitative detection of OTA. The integration of superior catalytic activity of Cr2O3-TiO2 nanozyme with a disposable paper-based platform presents a synergistic approach for accessible, robust, and inexpensive decentralized OTA screening in food and agricultural products in resource-limited settings.

Measuring vitamin B9 or folate levels is crucial to diagnosing anemia, preventing severe birth defects during pregnancy, evaluating nutritional status, and dealing with chronic illnesses. Therefore, in this study, an electrochemical sensor platform was built based on molybdenum disulfide and strontium titanate pencil graphite electrode (MoS2@SrTiO3/PGE) for folic acid (FA) detection. After synthesis by the hydrothermal method, the MoS2@SrTiO3 nanocomposite was characterized using the scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray analytical techniques. Cyclic voltammetry, impedance spectroscopy, and differential pulse voltammetry were performed to characterize the electrochemical attributes. The MoS2@SrTiO3/PGE modified electrode exhibited superior electroactivity with improved sensitivity and selectivity towards the electrochemical oxidation of FA. To accomplish maximum performance, the sensor was optimized under the following conditions: pH = 7.0, time = 20 min, material concentration = 7.0 mM, and scan rate = 75 mV/s. Considering optimal conditions, the peak current of FA displayed a linear response, with a detection limit of 4.5 nM in the range of 0.1 nM to 180 nM. The interference studies were carried out as well, and sensor results were shown to be highly selective in the presence of different interferents and maintained good stability. In addition, the sensing platform was effectively employed for trace detection of FA in real samples (supplement and urine), with favorable recovery percentages of 90-95%, respectively. The developed sensor has the potential to be exploited as a disease biomarker for FA detection in healthcare diagnostics.

This comprehensive review examines the efficacy of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) in addressing pesticide contamination, with a focus on electrochemical methods in achieving efficient degradation. It highlights recent advancements in electrochemical techniques and their application in pesticide remediation, emphasizing their potential as sustainable and cost-effective solutions for environmental protection. By analyzing recent research findings and experimental data, this review delves into mechanisms underlying electrochemical pesticide degradation providing insights into key factors process efficiency and degradation kinetics. Furthermore, it discusses the environmental implications and regulatory considerations associated with the implementation of electrochemical AOPs for pesticide remediation, underscoring the need for further research to overcome current challenges and optimize process performance. This critical review provides a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in the field of electrochemical pesticide degradation and offers valuable perspectives for future research directions.

With increased manufacturing activities and energy sector development, monitoring of heavy metal ion (HMI) pollution is becoming increasingly pressing. The discharge of metals from industrial effluents into the waterways could cause major economic and environmental disruption. In situ and on-site detection methods of trace HMIs can be effective countermeasures before the toxicity spreads out to larger areas, affecting the ecosystem. Conventional methods are often lacking in portability and costly. In contrast, electrochemical sensing, especially with nanoplatforms, is promising for trace detection of HMIs in complex media because of the ease of fabrication and adaptability of incorporating green technology. Appropriate electrode selection with suitable modifiers is crucial in complex medium analyses to overcome electrode fouling. In this review, the evolution from metal-based and carbon-based electrodes to advancements in electrode modification involving agro/biocomposite nanomaterials (NMs) such as cellulose, chitosan, and hydroxyapatite is discussed. The fabrication of nucleic acid-based aptasensors for analyzing HMIs and the adoption of smart systems based on microfluidics with high selectivity, operational stability, and sensitivity are highlighted. The challenges and future prospects for trace HMI determination based on electrochemical sensors in real complex media, including blood and industrial effluent or wastewater, are critically examined.

In this study, composite of Ti3C2 MXene and CuFe2O4 was prepared and used for visible light-driven ofloxacin (OFX) degradation and green hydrogen (H2) production. The OFX is one of the most widely used antibiotics and frequently found to contaminate water resources of drinking water supplied. The prepared MXene/CuFe2O4 significantly removed OFX and decomposed 73 % OFX compared to 57 % and 14 % for CuFe2O4 alone and MXene alone, respectively, under the same experimental conditions in this study. The efficiency of MXene/ CuFe2O4 composite for removing OFX was promoted from 73 % to 88 % by adding HSO5- at 10 mg/L OFX, 100 mg/L HSO5- , and 500 mg/L MXene/CuFe2O4. The high OFX removal by MXene with HSO5- could result from the effect of HSO5 -to promote the separation of charged species as well as the production of hydroxyl radical (center dot OH) and sulfate radical (SO4 center dot- ). Both high reactivities of OFX, i.e., 3.9 x 109 and 4.1 x 109 M- 1 s- 1 with center dot OH and SO4 center dot- , respectively, and declined OFX degradation in the presence of radical scavengers confirmed the effective role of these radicals in OFX degradation. OFX degradation significantly depended on operating parameters of concentrations of catalyst, OFX and HSO5- , pH values of solutions, and the presence of inorganic ions. The prepared composite proved high mechanical stability and reusability in its application of water treatment. Moreover, the prepared MXene/CuFe2O4 confirmed its effectiveness to produce H2 with a rate of 2374.6 mu mol h- 1 g- 1. Degradation pathways of OFX were established and estimated ecotoxicities of OFX as well as its degradation products. The high OFX degradation efficiency and high H2 production by MXene/CuFe2O4 suggest its high potential in the treatment of emerging pollutants and green energy economy.

Paper-based microfluidics provides an economical and flexible approach to fluid handling for simple and complex assays. Many applications still require ease of flow control with the added advantage of low-cost fabrication for commercial applications. In this study, we develop a fluid control strategy using glycerol as a barrier within paper channels. Glycerol reduces porosity and increases resistance, causing delayed flow times. As glycerol is hydrophilic in nature and can establish hydrogen bonds with water molecules, it is an efficient substrate for creating these delay zones in paper strips. The Lucas–Washburn model describes the physics for flow of liquid water through the porous substrate. From our findings, we observed that the water flow time was delayed from 5 to 20 min and penetration reduced from 43 mm to 24 mm by increasing glycerol concentration from 0% to 30%. Using oleic acid (fatty acid) as the working fluid instead of water extended the delay further, causing it to take up to 1 day to transport 35 mm with 30% glycerol investigation into the effects of glycerol concentration on flow behavior highlights the importance of understanding absorption time delays and the physics of wet-out flow in porous media., and we hope that, ultimately, our findings will be applicable for a variety of paper-based microfluidic devices for commercial applications

The influence of nanoadditives on biofuels alongside oxygenated additives is still unexplored in terms of fuel spray properties and rarely explored in context of performance and emissions. This study aims to produce ecofriendly renewable nanofuels by addressing this research gap. Molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanoparticles and acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) were used as a fuel additive to castor biodiesel to produce novel fuel blends. These fuels were investigated in terms of their macroscopic spray behavior, engine performance, and emission characteristics. Spray analysis revealed a longer fuel penetration length (0.9–2.5

Neurotransmitters (NTs) are endogenous chemical messengers that have a wide range of key roles throughout the nervous system. It is an important signal medium of neural transfers and equally influence physiological conditions. While, abnormal levels being correlated with physical, psychotic and neurodegenerative disorders such as ADHD, autism and tourette syndrome therefore, their sensitive and accurate detection is of great significance. Traditional methods of NTs detection are limited to complex sample processing, high cost, and real-time diagnostics. However, an electrochemical sensing has been intensively used in the last decades for NTs detection, which shows better sensitivity, selectivity, and capacity for operation in complicated biological environments, constitutes a promising approach. In this review, the most successful and favorable electrochemical sensors based on innovations in electrode materials and nanostructured surfaces having substantial improvement in the analytical performances and overcoming challenges followed by future prospects in NTs detection have been reported. This review also scrutinizes the progress made in biosensors for neurotransmitter measurements in microfluidic lab-on-a-chip systems, smart wearable devices and other advanced technologies for the goal of real-time, portable diagnosis in neuroscience and clinics. These advances are paving the way for more effective applications of electrochemical sensing in neuroscience and clinical diagnostics.

Biomarkers assume a crucial and undeniable role in the detection, monitoring, diagnosis, and therapeutic management of a diverse array of cancers type. These indicators are becoming increasingly central within the patient care journey, increasing demand for technologies capable of precise and cost-effective test outcomes. Progress in sensing technology, coupled with the advent of new materials, innovative manufacturing methods, and enhanced precision in sampling, has markedly advanced the detection of cancer biomarkers. The rapid progress in electrochemical biosensor technology has made them versatile tools for analyzing a wide array of biomarkers for clinical applications. Within this assessment, various electrochemical detection techniques for cancer biomarkers are outlined, encompassing illustrative instances showing the benefits of electrochemical sensors customized with a range of nanomaterials (NMs). Additionally, the limitations and potential of both biomarkers and electrochemical sensors in detection are deliberated upon.

An expanding human population and technological progress demand clean and effective energy-storing systems. Within the realm of energy-storing devices, supercapacitors (SCs) have grabbed huge focus owing to their high-power density, unique cycling stability, and fast charging discharging capabilities. Electrode material has a prominent impact on the effectiveness of SCs. Several types of electrode materials have been used, encompassing varied metal oxides, activated carbon, conducting polymers, and MOFs. Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) are considered emerging electrode candidates, which could be ascribed to the tunable porosity, large surface areas, and designed morphology. This review shows a detailed analysis of various mono-, bi-, and tri-metallic MOFs along with derivatives in SC applications, their structural characteristics, and synthetic strategies. It also critically evaluates MOFs potential to boost the SC's energy density, power density, stability, and conductivity. Also, it underscores their significance in the establishment of future-oriented energy storage applications.

Toxic metal contamination (such as Cd, Cr and Pb) in processed and raw dairy products is an important environmental and public health concern. The accumulation of these metals in dairy products causes health threats to consumers. Various anthropogenic and natural activities discharge metals into the soil, where they are consumed by plants and become a part of the food chain. In addition, there is a considerable risk of metal contamination in dairy products during various business processes. The present study was carried out to determine the quantities of toxic metals found in dairy product samples. These dairy products have been classified into two groups: raw dairy products, which were self-extracted from cows and buffaloes employing adequate hygiene, and processed dairy products, which were bought from the Abbottabad market. These samples were generated using a double acid digestion approach, and toxic metals were quantified using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). For health risk assessment, the Health Risk Index (HRI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and the Target Cancer Risk (TCR) indices were used. The relative levels of toxic metals in processed dairy product samples were as follows: Cd levels were highest in cheese (0.106+0.006 mg/kg), followed by butter and desi ghee (0.089+0.066 and 0.074+0.043 mg/kg, respectively). Cr concentrations were maximum in flavored milk (0.471+ 0.290 mg/kg) and desi ghee (0.371+ 0.01 mg/kg). Pb levels found in cheese were higher (1.753+0.194 mg/kg), then desi ghee and butter (1.025+0.01 and 0.652+0.397 mg/kg, respectively). Toxic metals in raw dairy products were measured in cow samples in the order of Cr >= Pb >= Cd. In a similar manner for buffalo samples, toxic metals followed the same trend as in cow samples. Though the concentrations of targeted metals in both raw and processed dairy product samples exceeded the threshold levels, the estimated levels of THQ and TCR were within the permissible range. However, our findings suggest that these metals in dairy products should be assessed on a continuous basis, as anthropogenic activities are contributing substantially to metal contamination.

This study aimed to assess the water quality, prevalence of waterborne diseases, and hygiene practices in selected Union Councils (UCs) of Abbottabad District. A small number of studies on water contamination and its effects on health have been carried out by various researchers and government organizations in Abbottabad. Considering how much time has passed since the last study, this one will provide up-to-date information on water quality and disease prevalence, taking into account any developments or patterns over the last ten years. The areas of high and low prevalence of waterborne diseases were identified based on secondary data from district hospitals. The high-prevalence area included UC Nawanshehr, UC Mirpur, and UC Sherwan, while the low-prevalence area comprised UC Bakot, UC Moolia, and UC Tearch. Water samples were collected from these UCs and analyzed for physical parameters (pH, turbidity, TDS, EC, and temperature) as well as biological parameters (E. coli, Salmonella typhi, and Vibrio cholera) to assess the drinking water quality. Questionnaires were also administered to gather information on water supply, storage, treatment, disease prevalence, and hygiene practices. The findings indicated that all physical parameters fell within the permissible limits; however, all water samples were found to be contaminated with biological agents. UC Mirpur and UC Bakot exhibited the highest disease prevalence rates of 55% and 33%, respectively. Correlation analysis revealed strong positive correlations (correlation coefficients of 1, 0.8, and 0.5) between the presence of E. coli, Salmonella typhi, and Vibrio cholera and disease prevalence. The questionnaire data revealed that the main sources of water supply were tube wells, small streams, and water pumps, with minimal water treatment practices. The water treatment level was, however, noted to be far below expectations, even with the required hygiene practices being followed in all Union Councils. Above all, these findings indicate the necessity to promote best practices for water treatment in the studied UCs and inform efforts to improve drinking water quality at the population level. Public health measures need to focus on improving access to safe drinking water sources, appropriate water treatment, and hygiene. The identified findings from this study nurture innovative affordable solutions that can lead to decreased waterborne diseases and enhanced public health protections in the Abbottabad District.

Histidine and lysine serve as essential amino acids in physiological processes and biomarkers for specific diseases, requiring precise detection methods in a variety of samples. This study presents an affordable single colorimetric probe that employs nickel oxide nanoparticles (NiONPs) as an artificial enzyme to detect histidine and lysine, improving conventional analytical limitations. The characterization of NiONPs was executed using SEM-EDX, FE-SEM, FTIR and XRD. The NiONPs demonstrated peroxidase-like catalytic activity on the conversion of TMB to oxidized TMB (oxTMB) in the presence of H2O2, utilizing optimization parameters like pH value (3), TMB concentration (10 mM), H2O2 concentration (60 mM), and incubation time (18 min). The study revealed that Ni and O atoms are present on the surface of NiONPs, allowing for specific interactions with essential amino acids and temporarily hindering the catalytic activity of oxidized TMB. The method exhibited a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.07 mu M (10-100 mu M) for histidine and 1.1 mu M (15-150 mu M) for lysine with good stability. The proposed strategy was validated with urine and plasma samples, yielding favorable recoveries of 93.6-98.2% in urine and 90.5-96.0% in plasma for histidine and 91.2-94.8% in urine and 88.4-93.3% in plasma for lysine, supporting its selectivity, feasibility, and reliability for practical applications. In the future, this methodology will facilitate the integration of histidine and lysine detection into microfluidic systems using NiONPs as a colorimetric probe.

A gradual surge in the population on Earth has increased the demand for food. Various synthetic materials have been used for food packaging for a long time. These materials are contaminating our environment and disrupting human life and that of other species. This study was conducted to minimize the impact of the pollution caused by using plastics for conventional packaging. A green approach to synthesizing packaging material that prevents food contamination with improved mechanical properties was adopted. Firstly, extracts were obtained from grapes and tomatoes and dissolved into four different solvents, i.e., de-ionized water, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and n-hexane. Three different extract solutions were made in de-ionized water, varying the fraction of the extract and de-ionized water. The extracts were then tested for the presence of various phytochemicals. The solutions were then combined with cyclodextrin, starch, alginate, and polyvinyl alcohol, all of which are biodegradable, non-cytotoxic, and pocket-friendly. Calcium chloride was also added because it acts as a firming agent and a desiccant. This resulted in the formation of a total of six membranes with four different solvents. These membranes had varying degrees of biodegradability and antibacterial properties. Various phytochemicals, such as saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, carotenoids, tannins, phenols, and steroids, were found in the fruit extracts. These phytochemicals act as anti-microbial and anti-fungal agents. Out of the six different membranes that were synthesized, the membrane with a 7:3 composition of crude extract to de-ionized water showed the best results for use as a packaging material, as it showed the best antibacterial properties and good reported biodegradability. The FTIR results for this membrane showed bands at around 3500 cm−1, indicating the presence of -OH and -NH functionality since these bands overlap and cannot be distinguished at this position. The shoulder band indicates the presence of carboxylic acid -OH. Integrating biopolymers with fruit extracts enhances the nutritional value of food and provides an eco-friendly and cost-effective approach to packaging material synthesis. The synthesized membranes are cost-effective as they contain fruit extracts from grapes and tomatoes; starch; and cyclodextrin. The extracts obtained from the fruits were inexpensive, as 300 mL of extract cost around 300 Rs. The synthesized membranes had functional advantages such as biodegradability and providing an enhanced shelf life to food products. Hence, they reduce the losses caused by food spoilage. Another driver of their cost effectiveness is that they can reduce waste disposal costs on the one hand and environmental pollution on the other hand.