Exposure to anthropogenic electromagnetic fields (EMFs), especially those of wireless communications (WC) has increased tremendously. This is an unprecedented phenomenon throughout biological evolution because, all anthropogenic EMFs, being fully polarized, coherent, and, especially WC EMFs, highly variable, differ substantially from the natural EMFs. WC EMFs consist of Microwave (MW) carrier waves, modulated, by Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) signals, and included in on/off pulses repeated at various ELF rates. Moreover, they exhibit intense random variability, mainly in the Ultra Low Frequency (ULF) band. Thus, WC EMFs are a combination of MW and ELF/ULF EMFs. The combination of polarization/coherence and intense low-frequency (ELF/ULF) variability seems to be the key to EMF-bioactivity. Epidemiological and laboratory studies highlight a connection between ELF or WC EMF exposure and cancer, infertility, electro-hypersensitivity, and various other pathologies. Studies also find DNA damage and Oxidative Stress (OS) which explain these pathologies. While man-made EMFs cannot directly ionize molecules, they are capable of doing this indirectly in biological tissue, by triggering the biosynthesis of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which can damage biomolecules, including DNA. The (over)production of ROS and the consequent OS are triggered by irregular gating of Voltage-Gated Ion Channels (VGICs) in the cell membranes as described by the Ion Forced Oscillation (IFO)-VGIC mechanism: Mobile ions within VGICs forced to oscillate by the applied ELF/ULF EMFs exert forces on the voltage sensors of the VGICs, similar to or greater than the forces that physiologically gate those channels, resulting in their irregular gating (dysfunction). Dysfunction of ion channels disrupts intracellular ionic concentrations. This triggers ROS overproduction and OS by the ROS-generating systems/enzymes in the cells, such as the electron transport chain (ETC) in the mitochondria, or the NADPH/NADH oxidases (NOXs), the Nitric Oxide synthases (NOS), etc. The IFO-VGIC mechanism and the consequent OS constitute a comprehensive mechanism that explains all known adverse biological and health effects reported to be induced by anthropogenic EMFs.

This scientific paper provides an analysis of the current state of biogas production and potential for improvement through optimizing biogas production and diversifying production. The analysis uses data from open sources and reports, such as EBA’s Statistical Report and analytical reports on market and digestate analysis. The authors present a comparison of electricity costs and biogas plant distribution in Europe, confirming that the higher the cost of electricity, the more widespread the introduction of biogas plants as an alternative energy source. The paper also discusses the potential of green ammonia production during anaerobic digestion, which can increase the efficiency and sustainability of biogas production technologies. The innovative technology of ammonia production from livestock waste during anaerobic treatment reduces the amount of water needed for dilution and transforms dissolved ammonia, which is toxic for anaerobic fermentation, into a useful final product. The paper highlights the potential for economically attractive approaches that use existing infrastructure and can contribute to energy independence and sustainability. The authors conclude that optimization in terms of more optimal process conditions and diversification of production approaches can increase the sustainability of biogas production technologies and ensure broader use.

In this chapter, we discuss alarming epidemiological and experimental data on carcinogenic effects of long-term non-thermal exposure to man-made electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and corresponding electromagnetic radiation (EMR), mainly from wireless communication (WC) systems, termed as WC EMFs and WC EMR, respectively. Moreover, since all WC EMFs/EMR include Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) components in the form of pulsations and modulation, the chapter also examines corresponding data from purely ELF man-made EMFs. During the past two decades, a number of scientific reports have revealed that, under certain conditions, non-thermal exposure to WC EMFs/EMR or modulated microwaves (MMWs) can substantially induce cancer progression in humans and animals. The carcinogenic effect of WC EMFs is typically manifested after long-term (usually ≥ 10 years) exposure, e.g., in mobile phone users. Nevertheless, even a year of operation of a powerful base station for mobile telephony (MT) reportedly resulted in a dramatic increase of cancer incidence among the population living nearby. In addition, studies in rodents unveiled a significant increase in carcinogenesis after 17–24 months of MMW exposure both in tumor-prone and intact animals. Data on widely accepted molecular markers of carcinogenesis confirm that exposure to non-thermal levels of MMWs or ELF man-made EMFs can induce tumorigenesis. It is becoming increasingly evident that assessment of biological effects of man-made EMFs/EMR based solely on thermal approach used in recommendations by certain international regulatory agencies, including the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), requires urgent and significant re-evaluation. We conclude that available scientific data strongly point to the need for re-elaboration of the current safety limits for man-made EMF exposures. We also emphasize that the everyday exposure of the population to WC EMFs/EMR should be regulated based on the Precautionary Principle, which implies maximum restriction of the risk factor till new, more unambiguous conclusions can be drawn regarding its safety.

Intensive implementation of wireless communication systems raised the question of the possible adverse effects of anthropogenic electromagnetic radiation. This study aims to assess the biological effects of low intensity microwaves (MW) radiation from smartphone Huawei Y5I commercial model used alone or in combination with attached Waveex chip that balances low frequency electromagnetic field but does not affect microwave signal. The biological model of developing quail embryos in ovo was used in the study. The phone as a source of low intensity 1800 MHz (0.32 µW/cm2) microwaves radiation was placed at 3 cm over the surface of hatching eggs and discontinuously activated with a computer program (48 s – on, 12 s – off). It was demonstrated that the exposure of quail embryos to radiation resulted in a statistically significant increase in the content of superoxide, nitrogen oxide and TBA products, DNA integrity damage in embryo cells and increased embryo mortality. Application of Waveex chip during the exposure resulted in a partial normalization of oxidative status and DNA integrity in embryonic cells indicating a negative impact not only of MW radiation, but of low-frequency electromagnetic fields from mobile devices as well.

The comparative analysis of laws and regulations on air quality, air protection, and its monitoring in the EU and Ukraine has been carried out to analyse the state of the European Union – Ukraine Association Agreement. The main features of the strategic documents “Europe 2020” and “Ukraine 2020” air pollution control are discussed. The analysis of air quality monitoring regulations, air quality control methods, and peculiarities of citizens’ alerts in the EU and Ukrainian legislation is provided. It is proven that the methods approach to limiting pollutant values differs in Ukraine and the EU. EU uses limit value’, ‘target value’, alert threshold’, ‘information threshold’ and ‘critical level’ and Ukraine uses limiting values. The limit values/permissible concentrations of carbon dioxide, sulfur (IV) oxide (average daily value), and lead are stricter in Ukraine. However, the permissible concentrations of PM10, sulfur (IV) oxide (short-term value), Arsenic, Cadmium, and Nickel are much lighter in Ukraine than in the EU. The dioxin content in ambient air is not regulated in Ukrainian legislation. Also, citizens’ monitoring systems and data provision differ and should be harmonised for the EU’s standards. The current state of roadmap implementation is firstly presented. It is demonstrated the necessity to harmonise the Ukrainian law and regulations on air quality control and air protection with the EU law.

This chapter describes experimental data on oxidative effects induced by man-made electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and corresponding electromagnetic radiation (EMR) in living cells. Analysis of the currently available peer-reviewed scientific literature reveals important molecular effects induced by non-thermal exposures to man-made EMFs, especially wireless communication (WC) EMFs, in living cells. They include significant activation of key cellular pathways generating oxidative stress (OS) by reactive oxygen species (ROS), activation of peroxidation, oxidative damage of DNA, and changes in activities of antioxidant enzymes. Critically important features of man-made EMFs, compared to natural EMFs, are their totally polarized and coherent character and, in the case of WC EMFs, combined frequency bands and sophisticated modulation. These features provide these types of EMFs/EMR with the unique and unexpected capacity of inducing biological effects such as pronounced oxidative effects in exposed living cells. It is indicative that among 131 analyzed peer-reviewed studies dealing with oxidative effects of non-thermal Radio Frequency (RF) EMFs, mostly pulsed/modulated by Extremely Low Frequencies (ELF), 124 (95%) confirmed statistically significant oxidative effects on various types of biological systems. And among 39 analyzed studies on oxidative effects of purely ELF EMFs, 36 of them (92%) also revealed significant oxidative effects of the exposure. The wide pathogenic potential of induced ROS and their involvement in cell signaling explains a range of biological/health effects of non-thermal man-made EMF exposures, which includes both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic pathologies. In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that a) man-made EMFs, and especially those employed in WC combining both RF and ELF components, is a pronounced oxidative agent for living cells with high pathogenic potential; and b) the OS induced by man-made EMF exposures should be recognized as one of the primary mechanisms of biological activity of this new environmental agent.

The basic principles of bionanotechnology and modern "green" chemistry are considered. The methods of synthesizing nanoparticles such as "top-down" and "bottom-up" are analyzed. The advantages of "green" synthesis of nanoparticles from plant raw materials with unique properties and a wide range of applications are presented. There are systematized factors that influence the biosynthesis of nanoparticles: the nature of the plant extract, the pH of the reaction mixture, the temperature of the incubation, the reaction time, the concentration and the electrochemical potential of the metal ion. The prospect of using nanotechnological approaches for the whole chain of agricultural production, as well as in the food industry, which will promote the creation of new nanomaterials, is shown. Nanotechnologies are successfully used to ensure the quality of food, enrichment of food products with minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, improvement of organoleptic properties, prolongation of life and antimicrobial packaging of food products. The focus is on the biosafety of nanomaterials whose properties are multifaceted, ambiguous and require a comprehensive, safe, responsible and scientifically sound approach.

Exposure of animals/biological samples to human-made electromagnetic fields (EMFs), especially in the extremely low frequency (ELF) band, and the microwave/radio frequency (RF) band which is always combined with ELF, may lead to DNA damage. DNA damage is connected with cell death, infertility and other pathologies, including cancer. ELF exposure from high-voltage power lines and complex RF exposure from wireless communication antennas/devices are linked to increased cancer risk. Almost all human-made RF EMFs include ELF components in the form of modulation, pulsing and random variability. Thus, in addition to polarization and coherence, the existence of ELFs is a common feature of almost all human-made EMFs. The present study reviews the DNA damage and related effects induced by human-made EMFs. The ion forced-oscillation mechanism for irregular gating of voltage-gated ion channels on cell membranes by polarized/coherent EMFs is extensively described. Dysfunction of ion channels disrupts intracellular ionic concentrations, which determine the cell's electrochemical balance and homeostasis. The present study shows how this can result in DNA damage through reactive oxygen species/free radical overproduction. Thus, a complete picture is provided of how human-made EMF exposure may indeed lead to DNA damage and related pathologies, including cancer. Moreover, it is suggested that the non-thermal biological effects attributed to RF EMFs are actually due to their ELF components.

AIM:Despite a significant number of epidemiological studies on potential carcinogenicity of microwave radiation (MWR) from wireless devices and a bulk of experimental studies on oxidative and mutagenic effects of low intensity MWR, the discussion on potential carcinogenicity of low intensity MWR is going on. This study aims to assess oxidative and mutagenic effects of low intensity MWR from a typical commercial model of a modern smartphone.MATERIALS AND METHODS:The model of developing quail embryos has been used for the assessment of oxidative and mutagenic effects of Global System for Mobile communication (GSM) 1800 MHz MWR from a commercial model of smartphone. The embryos were exposed in ovo to 0.32 µW/cm2, discontinuously - 48 s - On, 12 s - Off, during 5 days before and 14 days through the incubation period.RESULTS:The exposure of quail embryos before and during the incubation period to low intensity GSM 1800 MHz has resulted in expressive statistically significant oxidative effects in embryonic cells, including a 2-fold increase in superoxide generation rate and 85% increase in nitrogen oxide generation rate, damages of DNA integrity and oxidative damages of DNA (up to twice increased levels of 8-oxo-dG in cells of 1-day old chicks from the exposed embryos). Finally, the exposure resulted in a significant, almost twice, increase of embryo mortality.CONCLUSION:The exposure of model biological system to low intensity GSM 1800 MHz MWR resulted in significant oxidative and mutagenic effects in exposed cells, and thus should be recognized as a significant risk factor for living cells.

Biological model: Quail embryos in ovo. Fresh hatching eggs from the local producer. Mobile phones: Commercial models of Huawei 5YII, new (GSM 1800 MHz), from the local mobile phone shop. Waveex chip: New, from the producer. Chemical supplies: Applicable for biochemical tests, mostly from Sigma Aldrich. Incubators: Plastic-foam, automatic thermoregulation, made specially for the EMF tests, tested before. MW meter: RF field strength meter (Alfalab, USA). Other lab equipment: spectrophotometer Specol 80 (Germany), ESR spectrometer RE 1307 (Russia).

Objective: Exposure of humans to low intensity microwave radiation (MW) under some circumstances leads to several medical conditions, including headache, chronic fatigue, and even cancer. Mechanisms of these effects in many cases may depend on oxidative stress caused by MW exposure. Our study aims to assess oxidative stress features in embryonic cells under low intensity MW exposure in the first stages of embryogenesis. Methods: Embryos of Japanese quails were exposed in ovo to low intensity MW of GSM 900 MHz (0.25 µW/cm2) during 158-360 h discontinuously (48 c - ON, 12 c - OFF) before and in the initial stages of development. The levels of superoxide (O2·-), nitrogen oxide (NO·) and 8-oxo-2’-deoxyguanosine (8-oxo-dG) were assessed in cells of 38-h, 5- and 10-day exposed embryos and compared to the control group. Lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence was used for assessment of GSM modulation role in MW-induced oxidative effects. Results: A significant persistent overproduction of superoxide, nitrogen oxide and 8-oxo-dG in GSM MW exposed embryonic cells during all periods of analyses was detected. Conclusion: Exposure of developing quail embryos to low intensity MW of GSM 900 MHz during the first stages of embryogenesis resulted in a significant overproduction of superoxide and nitrogen oxide, and oxidative damages of DNA in embryonic cells. These effects were interpreted to be depended on the GSM modulation of MW.

This review aims to cover experimental data on oxidative effects of low-intensity radiofrequency radiation (RFR) in living cells. Analysis of the currently available peer-reviewed scientific literature reveals molecular effects induced by low-intensity RFR in living cells; this includes significant activation of key pathways generating reactive oxygen species (ROS), activation of peroxidation, oxidative damage of DNA and changes in the activity of antioxidant enzymes. It indicates that among 100 currently available peer-reviewed studies dealing with oxidative effects of low-intensity RFR, in general, 93 confirmed that RFR induces oxidative effects in biological systems. A wide pathogenic potential of the induced ROS and their involvement in cell signaling pathways explains a range of biological/health effects of low-intensity RFR, which include both cancer and non-cancer pathologies. In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that low-intensity RFR is an expressive oxidative agent for living cells with a high pathogenic potential and that the oxidative stress induced by RFR exposure should be recognized as one of the primary mechanisms of the biological activity of this kind of radiation.

Objective: Oxidative mechanisms of the mutagenic and carcinogenic potential of radiofrequency radiation (RFR) have been demonstrated recently. This opens the need for antioxidative approach for protection of living cells from harmful effects of RFR. In this study, we aimed to assess the antioxidant potential of monochromatic red light of light-emitting diodes (LED) in RFR-exposed embryonic cells. Methods: One group of Japanese quail embryos was exposed in ovo to GSM 900 MHz RFR (I = 1 14 µW/cm2; SAR = 0.17 mW/kg; t = 158 h; discontinuously) before and during the first hours of incubation. The second group of embryos was exposed to RFR in the same regimen and additionally to LED red light (λmax = 630-650 nm; I = 0.1 mW/cm2; t = 180 c; discontinuously). The third group of embryos were served as control. The rate of somitogenesis, level of lipid peroxidation, activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase in tissues of 38-h embryos were assessed. Results: Red light of LED exposure resulted in statistically significant reversion of the rate of somitogenesis decreased under RFR exposure; as well as in reversion of significantly increased level of lipid peroxidation and decreased catalase activity in tissues of RFR exposed embryos. In vitro significant suppression of SOD and catalase activities by short-term RFR exposure were partially reversed by LED red light treatment. Conclusion: Red light of LED can protect embryonic cells from oxidative stress caused by low intensity RFR exposure. This is of particularly importance in terms of potential mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of low intensity RFR, which in turn depends on the oxidative potential of RFR.