The pseudoacacia species (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) are flowering plants that produce nectar and can be the sources of unifloral honey. Robinia is native to North America and is invasive in several European countries. The aim of this work was to determine and compare the physicochemical parameters, proline content, and antioxidant capacity of pseudoacacia honey collected from different locations in two central European countries (Hungary and Slovakia). The botanical origin of each honey sample was verified by melissopalynological analysis. The color intensity was determined using the Pfund scale. The antioxidant activity was determined with different spectrophotometric methods (DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP). The content of the total polyphenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and proline was quantified using spectrophotometric methods. The electrical conductivity, refractive index, and optical rotation were analyzed according to European Pharmacopoeia, 12th edition. Our study shows that the antioxidant capacity, and proline and phenolic content of unifloral pseudoacacia honeys can vary according to the geographical origin, polyphenol content, and the pollen profile in honey samples.

The prevalence of chronic venous disease (CVD) is relatively high, it affects 20–80 % of the population worldwide. CVD may affect any veins in the human body, however, the veins of the lower extremities are the most susceptible to this condition. Among therapeutic possibilities for CVD, mainly chronic venous insufficiency, some medicinal plants (Ruscus aculeatus L., Aesculus hippocastanum L., Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.) and their active compounds (ruscoside, aescin, asiaticoside) or close derivatives also have important places. This review describes shortly the updated knowledge on pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, evaluation, and diagnostics of CVD as well as treatment modalities. The primary focus of this review is on the existing knowledge about botanical medications for treating chronic venous disease (CVD). It covers the chemical makeup of these plant drugs, their pharmacological effects, results from clinical trials involving humans, and any associated safety concerns.

Unlike conventional drug substances, herbal medicines are composed of a complex of biologically active compounds. Therefore, the potential occurrence of herb-drug interactions is even more probable than for drug-drug interactions. Interactions can occur on both the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic level. Herbal medicines may affect the resulting efficacy of the concomitantly used (synthetic) drugs, mainly on the pharmacokinetic level, by changing their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Studies on the pharmacodynamic interactions of herbal medicines and conventional drugs are still very limited. This interaction level is related to the mechanism of action of different plant constituents. Herb-drug interactions can cause changes in drug levels and activities and lead to therapeutic failure and/or side effects (sometimes toxicities, even fatal). This review aims to provide a summary of recent information on the potential drug interactions involving commonly used herbal medicines that affect the central nervous system (Camellia, Valeriana, Ginkgo, Hypericum, Humulus, Cannabis) and conventional drugs. The survey databases were used to identify primary scientific publications, case reports, and secondary databases on interactions were used later on as well. Search keywords were based on plant names (botanical genera), officinal herbal drugs, herbal drug preparations, herbal drug extracts.

The common cold is generally considered a usually harmless infectious disease of the upper respiratory pathway, with mostly mild symptoms. However, it should not be overlooked, as a severe cold can lead to serious complications, resulting in hospitalization or death in vulnerable patients. The treatment of the common cold remains purely symptomatic. Analgesics as well as oral antihistamines or decongestants may be advised to relieve fever, and local treatments can clear the airways and relieve nasal congestion, rhinorrhea, or sneezing. Certain medicinal plant specialties can be used as therapy or as complementary self-treatment. Recent scientific advances discussed in more detail in this review have demonstrated the plant’s efficiency in the treatment of the common cold. This review presents an overview of plants used worldwide in the treatment of cold diseases.

Various medicinal plants find their use in cough treatment, based on traditions and long-term experience. Pharmacological principles of their action, however, are much less known. Herbal drugs usually contain a mixture of potentially active compounds, which can manifest diverse effects. Expectorant or antitussive effects, which can be accompanied by others, such as anti-inflammatory or antibacterial, are probably the most important in the treatment of coughs. The aim of this review is to summarize the current state of knowledge of the effects of medicinal plants or their constituents on cough, based on reliable pharmacological studies. First, a comprehensive description of each effect is provided in order to explain the possible mechanism of action in detail. Next, the results related to individual plants and substances are summarized and critically discussed based on pharmacological in vivo and in vitro investigation.

Background: Combination therapy with methotrexate (MTX) is the most common therapeutic strategy used for the treatment of patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this study, we combined the natural compound carnosic acid (CA) with MTX to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress in adjuvant arthritis (AA). Methods: AA was induced in 6–8 rats per group. MTX was administrated twice a week at a dose of 0.3 mg/kg b.w., while CA was administered daily at a dose of 100 mg/kg both in monotherapy and in combination with MTX. Plasma samples were collected on the 14th, 21st, and 28th day. Body weight and hind paw volume were measured once a week. Results: We found that, mainly, the CA + MTX combination significantly reduced the hind paw swelling, the levels of IL-17A, MMP-9, and MCP-1 in plasma, and GGT activity in joint homogenates. The mRNA expression of HO-1, catalase, and IL-1β in the liver were significantly improved by CA + MTX only. Our results indicate that adding CA to MTX treatment could be a good therapeutic option for patients suffering from RA. Conclusions: The addition of CA to methotrexate treatment significantly improved its efficacy in decreasing the development of AA by inhibiting the markers of inflammation and oxidative stress.

The worldwide prevalence of gastrointestinal diseases is about 40%, with standard pharmacotherapy being long-lasting and economically challenging. Of the dozens of diseases listed by the Rome IV Foundation criteria, for five of them (heartburn, dyspepsia, nausea and vomiting disorder, constipation, and diarrhoea), treatment with herbals is an official alternative, legislatively supported by the European Medicines Agency (EMA). However, for most plants, the Directive does not require a description of the mechanisms of action, which should be related to the therapeutic effect of the European plant in question. This review article, therefore, summarizes the basic pharmacological knowledge of synthetic drugs used in selected functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) and correlates them with the constituents of medicinal plants. Therefore, the information presented here is intended as a starting point to support the claim that both empirical folk medicine and current and decades-old treatments with official herbal remedies have a rational basis in modern pharmacology.

Epiphyllum, Hylocereus, and Opuntia plants belong to the Cactaceae family. They are mostly known as ornamental plants but also for their edible fruits, which can potentially be sources of betalains, such as betanin, a natural pigment used in the food industry, e.g., under the European label code E 162. The aim of this work was the identification of betalains (using LC-MS/MS), evaluation of total betalain content (spectrophotometrically), analysis of functional groups (using FT-IR), evaluation of antioxidant activity (using DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, DCFH-DA, and reducing power methods) and evaluation of antimicrobial activity (S. aureus, E. coli, and C. albicans) in fruits of Epiphyllum, Hylocereus, and Opuntia taxa. A total of 20 betalains were identified in the studied Cactaceae fruits. The Epiphyllum pink hybrid had the highest values of total betalains amongst all samples. The highest antioxidant activity was observed in the Epiphyllum pink hybrid, in Opuntia zacuapanensis and O. humifusa fruits. The antimicrobial activity assay showed that cacti fruits were not able to effectively inhibit the growth of E. coli, S. aureus, or C. albicans. Our results prove that these fruits are good sources of natural pigments-betalains. They do not contain toxic compounds in significant amounts and they exhibit antioxidant activity.

The aim of our work was to analyse volatile compounds obtained from the fruits of three plant genera – Epiphyllum , Hylocereus and Opuntia – using HS-SPME GC-MS (headspace solid phase microextraction gas chromatography - mass spectrometry) methods. In violet Epiphyllum fruits, 12 compounds were identified, the most abundant being 2,3-butane-diol and hexanoic acid. In pink Epiphyllum fruits, 13 compounds were identified, the most abundant being ( E )-anethol and 1-nonadecene. In green Epiphyllum fruits, 10 compounds were identified, the most abundant being ( E )-anethol and methyl eugenol. In white-fleshed Hylocereus fruits, 9 compounds were identified, the most abundant being 1-hexadecanol and nonadecane. In red-fleshed Hylocereus fruits, 11 compounds were identified, the most abundant being 1-hexadecanol and nonadecane. Analysis of violet Opuntia fruits yielded 12 compounds, the most abundant being nonanal and ethyl decanoate. Analysis of orange Opuntia fruits yielded 8 compounds, the most abundant being ethyl decanoate and (3 E )-1,3-octadecadiene.

Cactaceae are mostly known as ornamental plants, though they can also be used as food (e. g. Epiphylli fructus, Hylocerei fructus - pitaya / pitahaya / dragon fruit, Opuntiae fructus - Opuntia fig / tuna / prickly pear). Main phytochemical constituents responsible for their pharmacological effects are betalains, terpenes and phenolics. The subject of our work was the identification and quantification of chemical elements in Epiphylli, Hylocerei and Opuntiae fructus (25 samples) by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis. The plant material was obtained from a garden in Modra, Slovakia (Epiphyllum Haw.); Botanical Garden in Szeged, Hungary [Hylocereus (Berger) Britt.]; Comenius University Botanical Garden in Bratislava, Slovakia, and University of Pecs Botanical Garden, Hungary (Opuntia Mill.). Fruits were collected in September 2012-2018. We identified and quantified these elements in the respective samples: Na-11, Al-13, P-15, K-19, Ca-20, Fe-26, Co-27, and Zn-30. The presence of these elements showed considerable variations. Other identified elements (Sc-21, V-23, Cr-24, Mn-25, Cu-29, Ga-31, Ge-32 , Se-34, (35) Br, Zr-40, Pd-46, Cd-48, In-49, Sn-50, Te-52, I-53, Xe-54, Ba-56, Ce-58, Nd-60, am, Sm-62, Eu-63, Gd-64, Tb-65, Dy-66, 67HO, Er-68, Tm-69, Yb-70, Lu-71, Hf-72, Ta-73, Re-75, Os-76, Ir-77, at, Hg-80, and Tl-81) could not be quantified due to the lack of available salts suitable for calibration. Full text English translation available in the on-line version.

The phenolic compounds of methanolic extracts of Salvia pomifera and Salvia fruticosa were identified by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. Carnosic acid and its metabolite carnosol were the most abundant terpene phenolic compounds of S. fruticosa, while they were completely absent in S. pomifera. The main terpene phenolic constituent of S. pomifera was 12-O-methylcarnosic acid and its mass/mass fragmentation pathway was explained. The detailed mechanism of carnosic acid oxidation to carnosol was suggested. The effects of Salvia extracts and/or carnosic acid, the main diterpene phenolic component of S. fruticosa, on the proliferation and cell cycle of two melanoma cell lines (A375, Mel JuSo) and human fibroblast cell line (HFF) were investigated by MTT assay, PI-exclusion assay and flow cytometry cell cycle analysis. Extract of S. fruticosa more efficiently than S. pomifera extract reduced the proliferation of the human melanoma cells. Carnosic acid showed the most significant effect. The first evidence that carnosic acid affects microtubule dynamics and arrests the cell cycle in the G2/M phase was provided. Collectively, our results demonstrate that these two Salvia species are plants of medicinal interest with perspective for further investigation. Carnosic acid could be the compound responsible for the biological activities of S. fruticosa extracts.

Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) is one of the oldest trees on earth. The medicinal use of its seeds and leaves has been a tradition for thousands of years. The standardized extract (known as EGb 761) contains several biologically active components, among them are terpenes and flavonoid glycosides that are responsible for the pharmacological activities of Ginkgonis folium. According to European Union herbal monographs (EUHM), the leaves of Ginkgo are recommended for the treatment of dementia, cerebral vascular insufficiency, and disorders of the peripheral circulation. The aim of our work was to analyze volatile constituents of Ginkgo leaf. Leaves of 3 Ginkgo trees were analyzed; 2 of which grow in the Medicinal Plants Garden (young trees A and B) and 1 at the Botanical Garden (old tree C) in Bratislava. The leaves were collected in 2014. The essential oil was isolated and quantified using hydrodistillation according to European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) The volatile constituents of Ginkgonis folium were evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). We identified 16 constituents of the leaves of tree A, 18 in tree B, and 14 in tree C. The volatiles of the 3 trees differ in the respective amounts of monoterpenoids, hydrocarbons, fatty acids, and their methyl esters. The following constituents were identified in all of the 3 trees in largest percentage: hexahydrofarnesyl acetone (23.6%, 16.0%, and 27.7%), α-linolenic acid methyl ester (14.8%, 20.7%, and 15.1%), and pentacosane (22.2%, 22.4%, and 21.9%). Other identified compounds include the monoterpenes ( E)- α-ionone and ( E)- β-ionone.

The aim of this study was to prove whether Ginkgo biloba food supplements on the European market comply with pharmaceutical quality, and whether their composition satisfies the European Pharmacopoeia criteria. Medicinal products containing a standardised Ginkgo leaf extract are used for the improvement of cognitive impairment and quality of life in mild dementia. Further, Ginkgonis folium is used for the treatment of peripheral circulation disorders. Pharmacopoeial Ginkgo dry extract contains 22.0-27.0% flavonoids and 5.4-6.6% terpene lactones (ginkgolides, bilobalide). In addition to its widespread use as an herbal medicine (herbal medicinal product), the same extract can be an ingredient in food supplements. The content of active secondary metabolites was quantified in a number of European food supplements containing Ginkgo dry extract or Ginkgo leaf. Flavonoids were quantified using a modified pharmacopoeial HPLC-UV method, and terpene lactones (ginkgolides A, B, C, and bilobalide) using LC-MS/MS. Some Ginkgo leaf supplement samples were also analysed by microscopy. The quality of food supplements on the European market is dubious. In this paper, we present selected examples of several methods of adulteration and falsification, including higher/lower doses of Ginkgo dry extract or Ginkgo leaf than declared and the addition of undeclared extraneous materials. These examples reveal several patterns in the manufacturing of adulterated products.

Methotrexate (MTX) is still the gold standard for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The therapeutic efficacy of low-dose of MTX can be increased by its combination with a natural substance, ferulaldehyde (FRA). The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect FRA and MTX administered alone or in combination in adjuvant arthritis. The disease was induced to Lewis male rats by intradermal injection, which contains a suspension of heat-inactivated Mycobacterium butyricum in incomplete Freund's adjuvant. The experiment of 28 days included: healthy animals, arthritic animals, arthritic animals with administration of FRA at the oral daily dose of 15 mg/kg, arthritic animals with administration of MTX at the oral dose of 0.3 mg/kg twice a week, and arthritic animals administered with FRA and MTX. FRA in monotherapy decreased significantly only the level of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and matrix metalloproteinase-9 in plasma. Combination of FRA and low-dose MTX was more effective than MTX alone when comparing body weight, hind paw volume, arthritic score, plasmatic levels of IL-1β, activity of γ-glutamyl transferase, and relative mRNA expression of IL-1β in the spleen. Therefore, the combination treatment was the most effective. The obtained results are interesting for future possible innovative therapy of patients with RA.

Living fossils are plants that evolved several million years ago and are still found in the present day. Some plant species were known from the fossil record even before their living species were discovered. Fossil records of genera Sequoia [1], Sequoiadendron [2] and Metasequoia [3] are extensive and have been found worldwide. The aim of this study was to analyse volatile compounds in several Gymnosperm living fossils of the Cupressaceae, and the Araucariaceae. In this presentation we show results of Sequoia sempervirens Endl., Sequoiadendron gigantes (Lindl.) Decne [syn. Sequoia giganteum (Lindl.) Buchh.], and Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng (Cupressaceae) analyses using the novel SPME GC-MS method. The plant material originated from the Comenius University Botanical Garden, Bratislava. The harvests were carried out in June 2014. We identified 10 compounds in Sequoia sempervirens leaves, i.e. 92.2% of the volatile compounds. The components identified in highest percentage were: α-pinene (37.6%), limonene (16.9%), and camphene (6.9%). The analysis of Sequoiadendron gigantes leaves showed 7 compounds, i.e. 99.8% of the volatiles; highest percentage quantified: α-pinene (55.1%), camphene (17.1%), and elemicin (11.9%). Similarly, Metasequoia glyptostroboides leaves showed 6 compounds, i.e. 97.1% of the volatiles; highest percentage: α-pinene (44.4%), camphene (43.4%), and Δ3-carene (5.1%). Chemotaxonomic aspects of this and previous analyses will be discussed in the presentation.

The history of several Salvia species (Salvia officinalis, Salvia fruticosa, Lamiaceae) can be dated back to Ancient Greece (Theophrastus and Dioscurides Pedanius). A long history of culinary and medicinal use of sage is known as well. Nowadays, several Ph. Eur. monographs, as well as two EMA-HMPC Community Herbal Monographs (Salviae officinalis folium and Salviae fruticosae folium) are in use. Salvia pomifera L. is another East-Mediterranean plant, restricted to Greece and to Asia Minor and typical to the island of Crete. It has a long history of folk medicinal use, nevertheless very few scientific data is available on this species so far. The aim of this study was to analyse the volatile compounds in Salviae pomiferae herba using a novel SPME GC-MS approach. The plant material originated from Crete. The harvests were carried out in June 2013, during the optimal phenophase of early blooming. We identified 26 compounds in Salviae pomiferae herba samples, i.e. 97.10% of the volatile components. The components identified in highest percentage were: α-thujone (23.54%), β-thujone (23.20%), and β-caryophyllene (18.84%). Previous works investigated water-distilled Salvia pomifera leaf essential oil by GC-MS. Twenty-seven components representing 92.87% of the oil were characterized in plants originating from Turkey [1]. The major components were β-thujone (50.67%), α-thujone (15.64%) and 1, 8-cineole (7.08%). Another investigation of S. pomifera oil (originating from Peloponnese Greece [2]) reported the content of 1, 8-cineole (2.3 – 9.5%), α-thujone (5.0 – 14.6%) and β-thujone (26.3 – 44.1%). The SPME GC-MS approach used in our study allows for direct analyses of the fresh plant material without the need for volatile oil isolation. Analyses of several Salvia species volatiles will be compared in the presentation.

Lamiaceae plants mostly accumulate active ingredients in their leaves. The subfamily Nepetoideae, including the genus Mentha L., is characterized by the presence of essential oil and antioxidant phenolics, chiefly hydroxycinnamic acids with predominance of rosmarinic acid, and flavonoids. Mentha × piperita and M. spicata are the most broadly used mints in both medicine and industry, while M. x villosa is less known in our country. Herbal drugs in the form of leaves are usually analysed unpartitioned, while single leaves insertions have only been studied occasionally. Therefore, the aim of this work was the quantification of the active compounds content in the leaves pairs of Mentha × villosa Huds. cv. Snežná, using pharmacopoeial methods: total hydroxycinnamic derivatives expressed as rosmarinic acid (THD) and luteolin-type flavonoids. THD content ranged from 6.7% to 9.4% in the leaves pairs water extracts, and from 6.6% to 14.0% in methanol extracts. Flavonoids contents, expressed as luteolin-7-O-glucoside, ranged from 4.0% to 8.8% in water extracts, and from 4.0% to 10.5% in methanol extracts. Antioxidant activity (DPPH) expressed as SC50 ranged from 10.2 to 16.9 μg.ml-1 (drug dry weight) in water extracts, and from 10.7 to 21.6 μg.ml-1 in methanol extracts. The highest content of phenolic compounds as well as the highest antioxidant activity were found to be in the top sheet, while the lowest content of phenolic compounds and lowest antioxidant activity were detected in the leaves of the middle stem part.Key words: Mentha × villosa Huds cv. Snežná hydroxycinnamic derivatives rosmarinic acid luteolin-7-O-glucoside DPPH.

Products containing the standardized Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) leaves extract, EGb 761, are used for the “improvement of cognitive impairment and of quality of life in mild dementia” (EMA-HMPC). The herbal drug Ginkgonis folium is used for the treatment of peripheral circulation disorders. Ginkgonis extractum siccum raffinatum et quantificatum (Ph. Eur. 8) shall contain 22%-24% flavonoids, and 5.4%-6.6% terpene lactones (ginkgolides, bilobalide). Next to mass products (medicines), some food supplements also contain the EGb 761 extract. The aim of this work was to prove whether food supplements possess pharmaceutical quality, and if they even obey the European Pharmacopoeia criteria. The experimental part is focused on the quantification of two groups of secondary metabolites in 3 mass product medicines (positive control), and in 11 food supplements containing EGb 761 or Ginkgonis folium. Flavonoids were quantified with and without aglycone hydrolysis using HPLC-UV. Terpene lactones (diterpenes – ginkgolides A, B, C, and the pentanorditerpene bilobalide) were quantified using LC-MS/MS. Microscopic analysis was included as well. The medicine mass products contained 29.06%-32.04% of flavonoids, whereas the food supplements just 0.2 to 39.79%, expressed as acylglycoside (Mr 756.7). The medicine mass products contained 5.22%-5.63% ginkgolides, and 4.52%-6.59% bilobalide, i.e. they meet the Ph. Eur. 8 requirements. Dietary supplements contained 0.00 to 29.66% ginkgolides, and 0.00%-13.44% bilobalide. One dietary supplement did not contain any Ginkgo, the presence of other herbal drugs was confirmed microscopically. Our results suggest that many Ginkgo food supplements are not of pharmaceutical quality, neither do they satisfy the requirements for medicines. Only two of 11 dietary supplements met the Ph. Eur. 8 requirements (lege artis), some used an adulterated extract, and two did not contain any Ginkgo herbal drug or extract.

The genus Sideritis L. was known in Ancient Greece already, mentioned by Theophrastus and Dioscurides. Popularly known as Ironwort, it is a traditional beverage in Balkan countries, one of the most used species is Sideritis raeseri Boiss. & Heldr., Lamiaceae (Sideritis raeseri herba). The EMA-HMPC is currently working on a Community Herbal Monograph. The aim of this study was to analyse the volatile compounds in Sideritis raeseri herba by SPME GC-MS. The plant material originated from Greece (Othrys Mountains). The harvests were carried out in June of 2011, 2012, and 2013, respectively, i.e. during the optimal phenophase of blooming. We identified 10 components in Sideritis raeseri herba (2011), that is 88.2% of the volatile components. The components identified in highest percentage were: γ-elemene (26.5%), β-caryophyllene (15.8%), and spathulenol (10.8%). Nine components were identified in the 2012 herb, that is 94.2% of the volatile components. These volatile components were identified in highest percentage: γ-elemene (32.3%), β-caryophyllene (14.9%) and spathulenol (9.7%). The analysis of the 2013 herb showed the presence of 10 components, and these represent 91,4% of the volatile components, and the volatile compounds present in highest percentage were: γ-elemene (29.5%), β-caryophyllene (15.4%) and spathulenol (10.1%). Further materials analysed included the Aetheroleum (2013), obtained by hydrodistillation, that showed the presence of 7 components that make up to 98.5% of volatiles. The main volatile compounds differed significantly in comparison to the herbal samples, the highest percentage showed: carvacrol (77.1%), nuciferol (8.2%), and α-bisabolol (6.6%). The aqua aromatica (2013), a side product of hydrodistillation, showed the presence of 4 components, i.e. 62.8% volatiles were identified. Essential oil compounds identified in highest percentage include: nuciferol (45.2%), spathulenol (11.6%) and caryophyllene oxide (5.6%).