CIHT cells, each comprising a Mo, MoCu (50-50 at%), or MoNi (50-50 at%) hydrogen permeable membrane anode or tape cast CoCu, clad onto a hydrogen permeable Ni membrane, NiO cathode, a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte, and MgO matrix in some cases, exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. The cells were operated under intermittent H2O electrolysis to generate H at the anode and then discharged to form hydrinos wherein H2O vapor as well as some O-2 was supplied from the atmosphere in open cells. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input and hydrogen supplied to the anode was measured to be multiples of the electrical input at about 10 mW/cm(2) anode area. The predicted molecular hydrino H-2(1/4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells by MAS H-1 NMR, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy. Copyright (C) 2014, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Atomic hydrogen is predicted to form fractional Rydberg energy states H(1/p) called "hydrino atoms" wherein n = 1/2,1/3,1/4,...,1/p (p <= 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The transition of H to a stable hydrino state H[a(H)/p = m + 1] having a binding energy of p(2).13.6 eV occurs by a nonradiative resonance energy transfer of m.27.2 eV (m is an integer) to a matched energy acceptor such as nascent H2O that has a potential energy of 81.6 eV (m = 3). The nascent H2O molecule formed by an oxidation reaction of OH- at a hydrogen anode is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H(1/4) with an energy release of 204 eV compared to the 1.48 eV required to produce H from electrolysis of H2O. CIHT cells, each comprising a LiOH-LiBr eutectic mixture as the electrolyte exploit hydrino formation as a half-cell reaction to serve as a new electrical energy source. Net electrical production over the electrolysis input and hydrogen supplied to the anode was measured using an Arbin BT 2000. The electrical energies were continuously output over long-duration, measured on different systems, configurations, and modes of operation and were typically multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of about 2 at about 10 mW/cm(2) anode area. The power density was increased by a factor of over 10 by running a corresponding high current. The thermal energy balance of solid fuels that form the HOH catalyst by a reaction akin to those of CIHT cells were measured using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). The DSC results confirmed water flow calorimetric (WFC) results and the former were further independently replicated at Setaram Instrumentation based in France. The thermal energy balance for solid fuels such as Co(OH)(2) + CuBr2 and Cu(OH)(2) + CuBr2 were up to 60 times the maximum theoretical for both types of calorimeters with supportive XRD of the WFC products. DSC performed on FeOOH and Cu(OH)(2) + FeBr2 in gold crucibles at Perkin Elmer showed up to four times the maximum theoretical energy. DSC and XRD were independently performed on the starting materials. The MAS H-1 NMR showed a predicted upfield matrix shift of a KOH-KCl hydrino getter when exposed to the gas from a reacting Cu(OH)(2) + CuBr2 solid fuel in a sealed cell. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm(-1) matched the free space rotational energy of H-2(1/4) (0.2414 eV). The solid fuels scaled linearly to over 5 kW and confirm the energetic reaction of hydrinos and may serve as a thermally reversible system to continuously generate power for commercial uses. Copyright (C) 2014, Hydrogen Energy Publications, LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Energy balances were measured for representative thermally regenerative reactions of four classes of hydrino catalyst systems, each capable of resonantly accepting m x 27.2 eV from H to form H(1/p), Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called ohydrino atomso wherein n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,..., 1/p (p 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for the excited states of hydrogen. Specifically, hydride-halide exchange reactions were tested where K and NaH served as catalysts since they form K3+ and Na2+ ions by absorbing 3 x 27.2 eV and 2 x 27.2 eV, respectively. Typical parameters measured by absolute water-flow calorimetry were two to five times energy gain relative to regeneration chemistry and 7 W/cm3. The predicted molecular hydrino and hydrino hydride products H2(1/4) and H-(1/4) corresponding to 50 MJ/mole H2 consumed were confirmed by the solution 1H NMR peak at 1.2 ppm and XPS peak at 11 eV, respectively.

Classical physical laws predict that atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species including itself that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m center dot 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called "hydrino atoms," where n=1/2,1/3,1/4,...,1/p (p < 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n=integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each atomic hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, one or more (m) H atoms can act as a catalyst for a given H by accepting m center dot 27.2 eV from it. Following the nonradiative energy transfer, further energy as characteristic continuum radiation having a short-wavelength cutoff of m(2)center dot 13.6 eV is released as the hydrino transitions to a final stable radius of 1/(1+m) that of H. The transition also selectively produces extraordinary high-kinetic energy H. Hydrino transitions were observed experimentally by the predicted catalyst excitation, continuum emission, and hot H. Similar to the case with the 21 cm (1.42 GHz) line of ordinary hydrogen, hydrino atoms were identified by its predicted 642 GHz spin-nuclear hyperfine transition observed by terahertz absorption spectroscopy of cryogenically cooled H-2 below 35 K. Hydrinos react to form molecular hydrino and hydrino hydride ions that are much more stable than the ordinary variants and have characteristic predicted energies, spectra, and NMR shifts. Synthesized and naturally occurring molecular hydrinos were observed by electron beam excited rovibrational spectral emission and proton NMR. Hydrino hydride ions were observed by proton NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) and XPS (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). The hydrino continua spectra directly and indirectly match significant celestial observations, and the characteristics of the hydrino indicate that it is dark matter. (C) 2011 Physics Essays Publication. [DOI: 10.4006/1.3544207]

Using Maxwell's equations, the structure of the electron was derived by Mills as a boundary-value problem wherein the electron comprises the source current of time-varying electromagnetic fields during transitions with the constraint that the bound n = 1 state electron cannot radiate energy. A reaction predicted by the solution involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. Specifically, a catalyst comprises a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple m of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. The product is H (1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms” wherein n = 1 / 2 , 1 / 3 , 1 / 4 , … , 1 / p (p ≤ 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. The reaction step of a nonradiative energy transfer of an integer multiple of 27.2 eV from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst results in an ionized catalyst and free electrons that may cause the reaction to rapidly cease due to charge accumulation. Li, K, and NaH served as the catalysts to form hydrinos at a rapid rate when a high-surface-area conductive support doped with an oxidant was added to speed up the rate limiting step, the removal of electrons from the catalyst as it is ionized by accepting the nonradiative resonant energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos. The concerted electron-acceptor reaction from the catalyst to oxidant via the support was also exothermic to heat the reactants and enhance the rates. Using water-flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power and energy gain from these heterogeneous catalyst systems were up to over 10 W/cm3 (reactant volume) and a factor of over six times the maximum theoretical, respectively. The reaction scaled linearly to 580 kJ that developed a power of about 30 kW. Solution 1H NMR on samples extracted from the reaction products in DMF-d7 showed the predicted H2 (1/4) and H− (1/4) at 1.2 ppm and −3.8 ppm, respectively. ToF-SIMs showed sodium hydrino hydride peaks such as NaHx, peaks with NaH catalyst, and the predicted 11 eV binding energy of H− (1/4) was observed by XPS. In an advancement over prior NaOH-doped Raney Ni power systems, the reactants of each solid fuel or heterogeneous-catalyst system can be regenerated from the products using commercial chemical-plant systems. Based on the observed energy gain and successful thermal regeneration, green power plants can be operated continuously as power and eutectic-melt electrolysis or thermal regeneration reactions are maintained in synchrony. The system is closed except that only hydrogen consumed in forming hydrinos need be replaced. Hydrogen can be obtained ultimately from the water with 200 times the energy release relative to combustion. These results indicate current commercial feasibility.

Novel inorganic hydride compounds KHKHCHO3 and KH were isolated and characterized following the highly exothermic electrolysis of a K2CO3 electrolyte, and the hydride was shown to comprise hydrino hydride ions [R. Mills, E. Dayalan, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, J. He, Electrochim. Acta 47 (2002) 3909; R. Mills, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 25 (2000) 669; R. Mills, J. New Mater. Electrochem. Syst. 6 (2003) 45; R. Mills, Fusion Technology, vol. 37, no. 2, March, 2000, p. 157.]. We report further evidence of the catalysis of hydrogen to form molecular hydrino with potassium catalyst in a K2CO3 electrolytic cell. Excess enthalpy of a factor of 40% that of the ohmic power dissipation was observed. H2(1/4), molecular hydrogen in a fractional Rydberg state, was predicted as a further product. From the NMR frequency, the energy state of the molecular hydrogen can be measured. The electrolysis gas was collected in a hollow nickel cathode that permitted enrichment of H2(1/4) based on its higher mobility. The gases were dissolved in CDCl3 and characterized by 1H NMR. A singlet peak upfield of H2 was observed with the predicted chemical shift of 1.25ppm relative to tetramethylsilane (TMS). The H2(1/4) NMR peak was further observed on samples prepared by dissolving each of the crystals that precipitated from the electrolyte and concentrated electrolyte in CDCl3.

Rb+ to Rb2+ and 2K(+) to K+K2+ each provide a reaction with a net enthalpy equal to the potential energy of atomic hydrogen. The presence of these gaseous ions with thermally dissociated hydrogen formed a plasma having strong VUV emission with a stationary inverted Lyman population. Significant Balmer a line broadening of 18 and 12 eV was observed from a rt-plasma of hydrogen with KNO3 and RbNO3 respectively, compared to 3eV from a hydrogen microwave plasma. The reaction was exothermic since excess power of about 20 mW/cc was measured by Calvet calorimetry. We propose an energetic catalytic reaction involving a resonance energy transfer between hydrogen atoms and Rb+ or 2K+ to form a very stable novel hydride ion. Its predicted binding energy of 3.0468eV with the fine structure was observed at 4071 A and its predicted bound-free hyperfine structure lines E-HF = j(2)3.00213 X 10(-5) + 3.0563 eV (j is an integer) matched those observed for j = 1 to j = 37 to within a 1 part per 104. Characteristic emission from each catalyst was observed. This catalytic reaction may pump a cw HI laser.

The data from a broad spectrum of investigational techniques strongly and consistently indicates that hydrogen can exist in lower-energy states than previously thought possible. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called "hydrino, atoms" wherein n = (1/2,1/3,1/4,... 1/p) (p <= 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Atomic lithium and molecular NaH served as catalysts since they meet the catalyst criterion-a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple m of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV (e.g. m = 3 for Li and m = 2 for NaH). Specific predictions based on closed form equations for energy levels of the corresponding hydrino hydride ions H-(1/4) of novel alkali halido hydrino hydride compounds (MH*X; M = Li or Na, X = halide) and molecular hydrino H-2(1/4) were tested using chemically generated catalysis reactants.First, Li catalyst was tested. Li and LiNH2 were used as a source of atomic lithium and hydrogen atoms. Using water-flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power from 1 g Li, 0.5 g LiNH2, 10 g LiBr, and 15 g Pd/Al2O3 was about 160 W with an energy balance of Delta H = -19.1 kJ. The observed energy balance was 4.4 times the maximum theoretical energy based on known chemistry. Next, Raney nickel (R-Ni) served as a dissociator when the power reaction mixture was used in chemical synthesis wherein LiBr acted as a getter of the catalysis product H(1/4) to form LiH*X as well as to trap H2(1/4) in the crystal. The ToF-SIMS showed LiH*X peaks. The H-1 MAS NMR of LiH*Br and LiH*I showed a large distinct upfield resonance at about -2.5 ppm that matched H-(1/4) in a LiX matrix. An NMR peak at 1.13 ppm matched interstitial H2(1/4), and the rotation frequency of H2(1/4) of 4 2 times that of ordinary H2 was observed at 1989 cm(-1) in the FTIR spectrum. The XPS spectrum recorded on the LiH*Br crystals showed peaks at about 9.5 eV and 12.3 eV that could not be assigned to any known elements based on the absence of any other primary element peaks, but matched the binding energy of H-(1/4) in two chemical environments. A further signature of the energetic process was the observation of the formation of a plasma called a resonant transferor rt-plasma at low temperatures (e.g. = 103 K) and very low field strengths of about 1-2 W cm when atomic Li was present with atomic hydrogen. Time-dependent line broadening of the H Balmer alpha line was observed corresponding to extraordinarily fast H(> 40 ev).NaH uniquely achieves high kinetics since the catalyst reaction relies on the release of the intrinsic H, which concomitantly undergoes the transition to form H(1/3) that further reacts to form H(1/4). High-temperature differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed on ionic NaH under a helium atmosphere at an extremely slow temperature ramp rate (0.1 degrees C/min) to increase the amount of molecular NaH formation. A novel exothermic effect of -177 kJ/mole NaH was observed in the temperature range of 640 degrees C-825 degrees C. To achieve high power, R-Ni having a surface area of about 100 m(2)/g was surface-coated with NaOH and reacted with Na metal to form NaH. Using water-flow, batch calorimetry, the measured power from 15 g of R-Ni was about 0.5 kW with an energy balance of Delta H = -36 kJ compared to Delta H approximate to 0 kJ from the R-Ni starting material, R-NiAl alloy, when reacted with Na metal. The observed energy balance of the NaH reaction was -1.6 x 10(4) kJ/mole H-2, over 66 times the -241.8 kJ/mole H-2 enthalpy of combustion. With an increase in NaOH doping to 0.5 wt%, the Al of the R-Ni intermetallic served to replace Na metal as a reductant to generate the NaH catalyst. When heated to 60 degrees C, 15 g of the composite catalyst material required no additive to release 11.7 kJ) of excess energy and develop a power of 0.25 kW. The energy scaled linearly and the power increased nonlinearly wherein the reaction of 1 kg 0.5 wt% NaoH-doped R-Ni liberated 753.1 kJ of energy to develop a power in excess of 50 kW. Solution NMR on product gases dissolved in DMF-d7 showed H-2(1/4) at 1.2 ppm.The ToF-SIMs showed sodium hydrino hydride, NaH., peaks. The H-1 MAS NMR spectra of NaH*Br and NaH*Cl showed large distinct upfield resonance at -3.6 ppm and -4 ppm, respectively, that matched H-(1/4), and an NMR peak at 1.1 ppm matched H-2(1/4). NaH*Cl from reaction of NaCl and the solid acid KHSO4 as the only source of hydrogen comprised two fractional hydrogen states. The H-(1/4) NMR peak was observed at -3.97 ppm, and the H-(1/3) peak was also present at -3.15 ppm. The corresponding H-2(1/4) and H-2(1/3) peaks were observed at 1.15 ppm and 1.7 ppm, respectively. H-1 NMR of NaH*F dissolved in DMF-d7 showed isolated H-2(1/4) and H-(1/4) at 1.2 ppm and -3.86 ppm, respectively, wherein the absence of any solid matrix effect or the possibility of alternative assignments confirmed the solid NMR assignments. The XPS spectrum recorded on NaH*Br showed the H-(1/4) peaks at about 9.5 eV and 12.3 eV that matched the results from LiH*Br and KH*I; whereas, sodium hydrino hydride showed two fractional hydrogen states additionally having the H-(1/3) XPS peak at 6 eV in the absence of a halide peak. The predicted rotational transitions having energies of 4(2) times those of ordinary H-2 were also observed from H-2(1/4) which was excited using a 12.5 keV electron beam. (c) 2008 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The data from a broad spectrum of investigational techniques strongly and consistently indicate that hydrogen can exist in lower-energy states than previously thought possible. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen wherein n = 1/2, 1/3, 1/4,..., 1/p (p <= 137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. He+, Ar+, and K are predicted to serve as catalysts since they meet the catalyst criterion-a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. Specific predictions based on closed-form equations for energy levels were tested. For example, two H(1/p) may react to form H-2(1/p) that have vibrational and rotational energies that are p(2) times those of H-2 comprising uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen. Rotational lines were observed in the 145-300 nm region from atmospheric pressure electron-beam-xcited argon-hydrogen plasmas. The unprecedented energy spacing of 4(2) times that of hydrogen established the internuclear distance as 1/4 that of H-2 and identified H-2(1/4).The predicted products of alkali catalyst K are H- (1/4) which form KH*X, a novel alkali halido (X) hydride compound, and H-2 (1/4) which may be trapped in the crystal. The H-1 MAS NMR spectrum of novel compound KH*Cl relative to external tetramethylsilane (TMS) showed a large distinct upfield resonance at -4.4 ppm corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of -35.9 ppm that matched the theoretical prediction of H(1/4) with p = 4. The predicted frequencies of ortho- and para-H-2 (1/4) were observed at 1943 and 2012 cm(-1) in the high-resolution-FTIR spectrum of KH*I having a -4.6 ppm NMR peak assigned to H- (1/4). The 1943/2012 cm(-1)-intensity ratio matched the characteristic ortho-to-pata-peak-intensity ratio of 3:1, and the ortho-para splitting of 69 cm(-1) matched that predicted. KH*Cl having H-(1/4) by NMR was incident to the 12.5 keV electron beam which excited similar emission of interstitial H-2 (1/4) as observed in the argon-hydrogen plasma. KNO3 and Raney nickel were used as a source of K catalyst and atomic hydrogen, respectively, to produce the corresponding exothermic reaction. The energy balance was Delta H = -17 925 kcal/mol KNO3, about 300 times that expected for the most energetic known chemistry of KNO3, and -3585 kcal/mol H-2, over 60 times the hypothetical maximum enthalpy of -57.8 kcal/mol H-2 due to combustion of hydrogen with atmospheric oxygen, assuming the maximum possible H-2 inventory. The reduction of KNO3 to water, potassium metal, and NH3 calculated from the heats of formation only releases -14.2 kcal/mol H-2 which cannot account for the observed heat; nor can hydrogen combustion. But, the results are consistent with the formation of H-(1/4) and H-2(1/4) having enthalpies of formation of over 100 times that of combustion. C) 2007 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Plasmas of certain catalysts such as Sr+ and Ar+ mixed with hydrogen were studied for evidence of a novel energetic reaction. These hydrogen plasmas called resonant transfer- or rt-plasmas were observed to form at low temperatures (e.g. ≈103K) and extraordinary low field strengths of about 1–2V/cm when argon and strontium were present with atomic hydrogen. Time-dependent line broadening of the H Balmer α line was observed corresponding to extraordinarily fast H (25eV). When an argon–hydrogen hollow-anode glow discharge plasma with strontium metal contained in the cell was optimized for Sr+ emission, an average hydrogen hot atom temperature of 50.2eV with a 83.5% population and an excess power of 28.5% of the input power were observed. Using water bath calorimetry, an excess power of 2.85W was measured on rt-plasmas with Sr+ and Ar+ as catalysts and atomic hydrogen as a reactant, compared with controls with no hydrogen and no catalyst present. The energy balance was high. Given an argon–hydrogen (95/5%) flow rate of 1.0sccm and an average excess power of 2.85W, energy balances of over -7.7×104kJ/mol H2 were measured.

Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films were synthesized on silicon substrates from solid carbon by a very low power (∼60 W) microwave plasma chemical vapor deposition (MPCVD) reaction of a mixture of 90–70% helium and 10–30% hydrogen. It is proposed that He+ served as a catalyst with atomic hydrogen to form an energetic plasma. The average hydrogen atom temperature of a helium-hydrogen plasma was measured to be up to 180–210 eV versus ≈3 eV for pure hydrogen. Bombardment of the carbon surface by highly energetic hydrogen formed by the catalysis reaction may play a role in the formation of DLC. The films were characterized by time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Raman spectroscopy. TOF-SIMS identified the coatings as hydride by the large H+ peak in the positive spectrum and the dominant H− in the negative spectrum. The XPS identification of the H content of the CH coatings as a novel hydride corresponding to a peak at 49 eV has implications that the mechanism of the DLC formation may also involve one or both of selective etching of graphitic carbon and the stabilization of sp3-bonded carbon by the hydrogen catalysis product. Thus, a novel H intermediate formed by the plasma catalysis reaction may enhance the stabilization and etching role of H used in past methods.

2K(+) to K+K2+ and K to K3+ provide a reaction with a net enthalpy equal to one and three times the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, respectively. The presence of these gaseous ions or atoms with thermally dissociated hydrogen formed a so-called resonance transfer (rt)-plasma having strong VUV emission with a stationary inverted Lyman population. Significant line broadening of the Balmer alpha, beta, and gamma lines of 18 eV was observed, compared to 3-4 eV from a, hydrogen microwave plasma. Emission from rt-plasmas occurred even when the electric field applied to the plasma was zero. The reaction was exothermic since excess power of 20 mW cm(-3) was measured by Calvet calorimetry. An energetic catalytic reaction was proposed involving a resonant energy transfer between hydrogen atoms and 2K(+) or K to form very stable novel hydride ions H- (1/p) called hydrino hydrides having a fractional principal quantum numbers p=2 and p=4, respectively. Characteristic emission was observed from K2+ and K3+ that confirmed the resonant nonradiative energy transfer of 27.2 eV and 3 x 27.2 eV from atomic hydrogen to 2K(+) and K, respectively. The product hydride ion H-(1/4) was observed spectroscopically at 110 nm corresponding to its predicted binding energy of 11.2 eV. The H-1 MAS NMR spectrum of novel compound KH*Cl relative to external tetramethylsilane (TMS) showed a large distinct, upfield resonance at -4.4 corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of -35.9 ppm that matched the theoretical prediction of p=4. A novel peak of KH*I at -1.5 ppm relative to TMS corresponding to an absolute resonance shift of -33.0 ppm matched the theoretical prediction of p=2. The predicted catalyst reactions, position of the upfield-shifted NMR peaks for H- (1/4) and H- (1/2), and spectroscopic data for H- (1/4) were found to be in agreement with the experimental observations as well as previously reported spectroscopic data for H- (1/2) and analysis of KH*Cl and KH*I containing these hydride ions.

A novel highly stable surface coating SiH(1/p) which comprised high-binding-energy hydride ions was synthesized by a microwave plasma reaction of a mixture of silane, hydrogen, and helium wherein it is proposed that He+ served as a catalyst with atomic hydrogen to form the highly stable hydride ions. Novel silicon hydride was identified by time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The ToF-SIMS identified the coatings as hydride by the large SiH+ peak in the positive spectrum and the dominant H- in the negative spectrum. XPS identified the H content of the SiH coatings as hydride ions, H-(1/4), H-(1/9), and H-(1/11) corresponding to peaks at 11, 43, and 55 eV, respectively. The silicon hydride surface was remarkably stable to air as shown by XPS. The highly stable amorphous silicon hydride coating may advance the production of integrated circuits and microdevices by resisting the oxygen passivation of the surface and possibly altering the dielectric constant and band gap to increase device performance. The plasma which formed SiH(1/p) showed a number of extraordinary features. Novel emission lines with energies of q . 13.6 eV where q = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 11 were previously observed by extreme ultraviolet spectroscopy recorded on microwave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen (Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 27 (3) 301-322). These lines matched H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen where p is an integer, formed by a resonant nonradiative energy transfer to He+ acting as a catalyst. The average hydrogen atom temperature of the helium-hydrogen plasma was measured to be 180 -210 eV versus approximate to 3 eV for pure hydrogen. Using water bath calorimetry, excess power was observed from the helium-hydrogen plasma compared to control krypton plasma. For example, for an input of 8.1 W, the total plasma power of the helium-hydrogen plasma measured by water bath calorimetry was 30.0 W corresponding to 21.9 W of excess power in 3 cm(3). The excess power density and energy balance were high, 7.3 W/cm(3) and -2.9 x 10(4) kJ/mol H-2, respectively. This catalytic plasma reaction may represent a new hydrogen energy source and a new field of hydrogen chemistry. (C) 2003 International Association for Hydrogen Energy. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy was recorded on microwave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen. Novel emission lines were observed with energies of q × 13.6eV, where q=1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 or these discrete energies less 21.2eV corresponding to inelastic scattering of these photons by helium atoms due to excitation of He (1s2) to He (1s12p1). The average hydrogen atom temperature was measured to be 180–210eV versus ≈3eV for pure hydrogen. The electron temperature Te for helium–hydrogen was 30,500±5% K compared to 7400±5% K for pure helium. Dominant He+ emission and an intensification of the plasma emission observed when He+ was present with atomic hydrogen demonstrated the role of He+ as a catalyst. Using water bath calorimetry, excess power was observed from the helium–hydrogen plasma compared to control krypton plasma. For example, for an input of 8.1W, the total plasma power of the helium–hydrogen plasma measured by water bath calorimetry was 30.0W corresponding to 21.9W of excess power in 3cm3. The excess power density and energy balance were high, 7.3W/cm3 and −2.9×104kJ/mole H2, respectively.

From the width of the 656.3 nm Balmer α line emitted from microwave and glow discharge plasmas, it was found that a strontium–hydrogen microwave plasma showed a broadening similar to that observed in the glow discharge cell of 27–33 eV; whereas, in both sources, no broadening was observed for magnesium–hydrogen. Microwave helium–hydrogen and argon–hydrogen plasmas showed extraordinary broadening corresponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature of 180–210 eV and 110–130 eV, respectively. The corresponding results from the glow discharge plasmas were 33–38 eV and 30–35 eV respectively, compared to ≈4 eV for plasmas of pure hydrogen, neon–hydrogen, krypton–hydrogen, and xenon–hydrogen maintained in either source. Similarly, the average electron temperature Te for helium–hydrogen and argon–hydrogen microwave plasmas were high, 30 500±5% K and 13 700±5% K, respectively; compared to 7400±5% K and 5700±5% K for helium and argon alone, respectively. External Stark broadening or acceleration of charged species due to high fields can not explain the microwave results since no high field was present, and the electron density was orders of magnitude too low for the corresponding Stark effect. Rather, a resonant energy transfer mechanism is proposed.

After 104 h of continuous aqueous electrolysis with K2CO3 as the electrolyte, highly stable novel inorganic hydride compounds such as KH KHCO3 and KH were isolated and identified by time of flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy (ToF-SIMS). The existence of novel hydride ions was determined using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and solid state magic-angle spinning proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H MAS NMR). A novel hydride ion formed by plasma electrolysis of a K2CO3, Rb2CO3, or Cs2CO3 electrolyte was also observed by high resolution visible spectroscopy at 407.0 nm corresponding to its predicted binding energy of 3.05 eV.

From a solution of a Schrödinger-type wave equation with a nonradiative boundary condition based on Maxwell's equations, Mills predicts that atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain gaseous ions such as Ar+ which ionize at integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2eV. The reaction involves a nonradiative energy transfer to form a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen with the release of energy. Upon the addition of 5% argon catalyst to a hydrogen plasma, the Lyman α emission was observed to increase by about an order of magnitude which indicated an increase in the plasma temperature; whereas, xenon control had no effect. Thus, the energy balances of argon–hydrogen glow discharge plasmas were measured using Calvet calorimetry. The steady state Calvet voltage significantly increased upon the addition of 3% hydrogen to an argon plasma, and the output signal was integrated until the signal returned to baseline. An energy balance of over −151,000kJ/mol H2 was measured compared to the enthalpy of combustion of hydrogen of −241.8kJ/mol H2. Whereas, under identical conditions no change in the Calvet voltage was observed when hydrogen was added to a plasma of xenon which does not provide a reaction with a net enthalpy of a multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen under these conditions.

Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy was recorded on microwave discharges of helium with 2% hydrogen. Novel emission lines were observed with energies of q·13.6eV where q=1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9, or 11 or these lines inelastically scattered by helium atoms wherein 21.2eV was absorbed in the excitation of He (1s2) to He (1s12p1). These lines were identified as hydrogen transitions to electronic energy levels below the ‘ground’ state corresponding to fractional quantum numbers. Significant line broadening corresponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature of 33–38eV was observed for helium–hydrogen discharge plasmas; whereas pure hydrogen showed no excessive broadening corresponding to an average hydrogen atom temperature of ≈3eV. Since a significant increase in H temperature was observed with helium–hydrogen discharge plasmas, and energetic hydrino lines were observed at short wavelengths in the corresponding microwave plasmas that required a very significant reaction rate due to low photon detection efficiency in this region, the power balance was measured on the helium–hydrogen microwave plasmas. With a microwave input power of 30W, the thermal output power was measured to be at least 300W corresponding to a reactor temperature rise from room temperature to 900°C within 90s, a power density of 30MW/m3, and an energy balance of about −4×105kJ/mol H2 compared to the enthalpy of combustion of hydrogen of −241.8kJ/mol H2.